**Intro To Identifying Fungi**
A True Intro To The Identification Of Fungi
Formal Notification: This article and all of its contents are intended for adults aged 18 and over. If you are not of age, you should NOT be reading this.
Digital Translators In Order Of Rank:
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▥ Notation: This text was originally designed on a site called Mushroom Observer. For those of you who use Mushroom Observer (MO), it is potentially best viewed using a tablet with a liquid crystal display and touch zoom. While I cannot recommend any technologies or brands due to lacking human ethics and intelligence worldwide, I will relay this: The iPads with hand touch zoom seem better than any other item I've tried for viewing mushrooms. When viewing images for up-close details on MO, try using the Show Original Image feature to get the largest, best photo. Once this large version of the image appears, you may then single click on it to expand it further. Then you can use operating system zoom along with browser zoom and see things that other identifiers may not see. You may wish to utilize browser zoom now to view this list and other aspects of MO. I constantly adjust my zoom based on what aspect of MO I browse. Lastly, but not any less important, you'll want the MO glossary open in a separate browser tab while viewing this.
It is an impressively absurd trait of the human species aggregate that it refuses to teach mycology correctly in middle schools (junior highs), in high schools, in colleges, in universities, in private schools, and while at home. It is equally, impressively absurd that some humans literally stomp on mushrooms in front of children, and tell them all mushrooms are poisonous, and that fungi should never be considered for any purpose - whatsoever. The human species is no longer mingling with a permanent state of profound ignorance, disgusting misconduct, ill-will, whole-hearted mis-prioritization of human behaviors, and malevolence. These human traits are well known, well observed, and well recorded - with reason. Should you or anyone else be bringing these traits into other solar systems?
If the human species wants to start developing mentally and behaviorally to the point of what should be called excellence, it can begin by allowing the high art of mycology to flourish in dignified, respectable institutions worldwide - accompanied by honesty and priority. This isn't year zero. Let's act our archaeological age and embrace self-development, while also embracing mycology in organizations with a completely different approach.
The scientific study of fungi should be taught with equal priority as given to the teaching of the English language, high cleanliness, peak etiquette, ethical options, and priority of human behavior/conduct. Mycology should start with mushroom identification using taxonomic characters and classification. Sterile technique(s) should then be taught third, while still including taxonomy with field studies involving classification. Mushroom identification is the instant path to sparking natural interest in mycology, while allowing students of all ages to broadly explore subdivisions of knowledge. Identifying fungi can sometimes make learning into something enjoyable and fascinating.
DNA sequencing of the ITS barcode should be taught next. Then the in-field portion of cloning fungi should be taught. While people learn these skills they must still perform field studies, taxonomy, and sterile technique(s). Detailed microscopy of gilled fungi should then be co-implemented while utilizing high definition images in slide show presentations. Fungal modes of reproduction should follow. The study of DNA regions should co-occur beyond that of the ITS barcode. Whole, complete genome sequencing should follow. Then aspects of fungal forestry (the management & creation of healthy forests with fungi) should be taught. Then climate change. Then over-population. Then population density trauma. Then the relationships between humans and the ever-changing forests of the Earth, including fungi. Then extinctions of fungi and plants. Fungal Forestry should start with an introduction to a light-emitting species in the dark hours of night. Fungal Forestry should then be followed by mushroom growing (cultivation) while actually growing and actually having fun. Mycolandscaping should then be taught with a hands-on approach. All of the items listed above are probably attainable and fairly practical. These items will serve as the foundation for more mycological studies. To not teach mycology in this manner is to fail to teach mycology properly, in my view. Teachers should spend less time rambling and more time allowing people to do their work in a healthy environment matched with excellent mentoring.
Students and faculty involved in mycology should be in a better "living realm" while in class - to the most excellent extent they are able to obtain together. Classrooms and labs can sparingly or greatly implement black lights, with artwork intended for black light environments. Edison gold lights can also be added, along with additional nuanced lighting options. Exceptional selections of music and sound effects played on an excellent sound system can also be included during intermissions, and at other times. Any music or sound effects played should be "conductive" within the environment - while generating focus, finesse, strength, and cohesion with the tasks required for that day. Each and every day will begin by properly, fully cleaning the lab and classroom with a sense of immediacy, excellence, and self-expectation. This should take five minutes exactly, followed by a timed, one minute, ceremonial washing of hands. The flowhoods will switch on - also in simple ceremony with reverence - and work shall commence.
Although you may find the next statement humorous, I take an honest tone in suggesting that students should also be encouraged to wear exotic, Jedi-like clothing for this coursework - or at least wear this creation of clothing to and from class. Remember, your environment, fashion, and intentions are able to modify and uplift consciousness. Your diet and decision-making for each and every day can also modify and uplift consciousness. The students should never be made to feel small. They should be spoken to like future Jedi.
Those who are ignoring mycology and/or botany in the 21st century may be doing so towards their own mental decline. Most of the people on this planet are struggling to show enough intelligence to implement the appropriate level of etiquette so that everyone feels okay during their time on Earth. That should be alarming to you. That should make you want to look for solutions. The Earth is changing and you will all soon see it for yourselves.
Do you want to talk about Space, Dimensions, and War - as your planet rests on a trajectory towards a sixth extinction event or something worse? May I make an alternative, difficult proposition that is intended for everyone? First, learn cleanliness, sophisticated language with flexibility, etiquette (politeness), kindness, honesty, grace, diversity, formality, reaching for higher virtues, and mycology. Then, maybe (perhaps) we can all start to have a conversation about Space, Dimensions, and potentially different lifeforms elsewhere endued with emotions, talents, knowledge, flaws, and wisdom. The human species is walking around with false pride - dangerously false pride - and false intelligence, accompanied by layer upon layer of misconduct. Many things can be done to address these layers. Mycology, taught properly and effectively, is one technique of practical implementation that can have far-reaching effects on the entirety of the human species aggregate, if given a miraculous, unexpected window-of-opportunity.
The following text is both an introduction to fungi, and more importantly, a text to help you identify mushrooms and other fungi - with honest, effective paths provided. As taxonomy becomes more sophisticated with the inclusion of whole, complete genome sequencing, along with better literature and imagery, accuracy in identification is likely to increase. Accuracy can also be increased through the eloquent, free-sharing of scientific and non-scientific literature. New technologies may also emerge to make things easier and more accurate.
Notes On Literature: More mycologists and identifiers should be sharing free literature with one another, rather than competing with one another. You should consider helping each other grow as mycologists or as identifiers, while helping the public become more knowledgeable - by interacting properly with them. Those of you who are mycologists need to hear/interpret something else: You are expected to be of a higher state of mind and a higher state of heart than people who are not involved in the scientific study of fungi. So are those of you who are involved in botany at the scientific level. You are all expected to exhibit profound patience with students and the public in general - no matter how much non-sense you have already endured. What you do this year and in the following years is important. You have accessed knowledge and forces of nature like very few people have. You are also compatible with specific types of knowledge and the ability to deal with forces of nature in unique ways. This proceeds with responsibilities that others may attempt to shrug off. I suggest you take five minutes to ask yourself if you have embraced those natural responsibilities and helped people who wanted to learn new things, or if you abandoned them in silence. If you are a mycologist and you have not properly taken questions from the public, or you have refused to share some literature with your colleagues, can you re-consider your approach?
Final Opening Remarks: All serious students of fungi need to hear something that may seem like a jab to the nose. If you are well on your way to becoming a mycologist or an identifier, please consider becoming a literally perfect writer and a perfect illustrator (or photographer).
Fungi are identified properly using taxonomy, nomenclature, and classification (taxonomic rank), along with other tools, to eventually apply a scientific name to each lifeform. A binomial (two part) name is made to distinguish and identify fungi at the species level. Example: Panaeolus cyanoannulatus. The first part of the name is the genus name, which is capitalized (example = Gymnopilus). The second part is the unique species name within that genus, and it is un-capitalized. We do not use "common names" (example = Laughing Gym) or nicknames in formal taxonomy. Common names are okay to teach young people though. They may need common names in order to eventually start using scientific names.
Here's an example of the classification of one interesting species called Psilocybe zapotecorum.
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Hymenogastraceae
Genus: Psilocybe
Section: Psilocybe sect. Zapotecorum
Species: Psilocybe zapotecorumBelow: Psilocybe zapotecorum from Jalisco, Mexico
Probably everyone who has experienced enthrallment by unidentified fungi has collected mushrooms and made at least one inquiry among identifiers. Identification is a category of mycology that often requires teamwork, respectful collaboration, personal development, and literature. There are a few exceptionally talented people who can identify a very high amount of diverse fungi, but these folks are very rare. Most people seem to grow in knowledge by starting to identify species in their favorite genera (genuses). For example, most people who study the psychedelic (mind-manifesting) genera seem to immediately gravitate to the genus Psilocybe first, then Panaeolus, then Gymnopilus, then Pluteus. As identifiers become aware of additional psychedelic genera, they explore into more dangerous territory with Pholiotina, Inocybe, Conocybe, Galerina, Mycena, and other genera. I recommend studying any genus and species you want to, and developing your skills every year thru repetition, going deeper than in past years, and by teaching or assisting other identifiers. Identification of lifeforms in the kingdom fungi, generally speaking, requires patience, focus, and grace. You may find that you have a place in this kingdom, and that this kingdom is quite capable of emerging as a lifeforce to you and others. This may include the desire to generate far superior literature than what is currently available.
Let's look at a complete fungal name. In this instance, a species name:
Inocybe haemacta (Berk. & Cooke) Sacc., Syll. fung. (Abellini) 5: 763 (1887)
This is the "correct" format for names on MO, although other styles and formats are used by various publications and online literature. The first part of this info is the scientific name. The second part [ (Berk. & Cooke) Sacc. ] contains the author names. The third part is the publication name and date in which the species was formally made known. If I want to read about a species, I can Google the publication info, or I can try similar searches. The way you search for literature makes a difference. Sometimes you have to fight to find it.
Here is the literature for Inocybe haemacta: https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/25509#page/773/mode/1up
Also note that Inocybe haemacta is placed into a section. Namely, Inocybe sect. Lactiferae. This section contains bluing/greening Psilocybin species such as Inocybe corydalina, Inocybe tricolor, Inocybe glaucescens, and additional species. You can begin reading about these species in a 2019 paper if you wish: http://inocybaceae.org/PDF/Matheny_Kudzma_NewInocybe_EasternNA.2019.pdf Note: Not all species in this section are Psilocybin species.
Below: Inocybe haemacta
Notice the bluing on the stems, but also take note of the substrate (soil) still attached to the bases of the stems. These are important taxonomic characters that can easily be learned and built upon.
Well, this is a complicated question which I will answer with great simpliciity. A species is a basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of a unique, distinguished lifeform. A species shares likeness is physical appearance, behavior, reproduction, and in DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid). There are over two dozen different species concepts developed by humans, and you can gradually immerse yourself into these definitions by searching the internet for terms like "species concepts" and "the species problem." Perhaps the most important thing to simply remember here is that species are unique, and we as identifiers (taxonomists) organize mushrooms not only by order and by genus, but also at the species level whenever possible. This distinguishes one fungus from the others using taxonomy. Taxonomy is the science of naming, describing, and classifying all living, endangered, extinct, and fossilized organisms, including all known fungi.
You are probably quite familiar with the terms genus and species, and perhaps all of the levels listed above regarding classification. Whether you're new to this classification system or very familiar with it, let me make one point here that is important: Sections (abbreviated in the singular form as sect.). Have a look at this: Psilocybe sect. Zapotecorum. You should always try your best to identify a fungus not only to genus, but also to section - at a minimum. This isn't always easy, and sometimes it's impossible. I recommend to let that be your minimum goal with identification when possible. Note that many species do not belong to a section as of 2022, and many collections on Mushroom Observer have not even been identified beyond Order. Mushroom Observer currently has a large quantity of unidentified fungi, and quite frankly, help is needed.
You should also be able to make IDs to Family level classification, with equal effort. If you know you found a mushroom resembling a Galerina, but it's not a Galerina, you can propose a name for the current family inclusive of Galerina known as Hymenogastraceae. Then look at which genera belong to that family, and begin an investigation into each genus.
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Hymenogastraceae
⬂
Subtaxa (Genera within the family Hymenogastraceae):
Alnicola Kühner
Chromocyphella De Toni & Levi
Flammula (Fr.) P. Kumm.
Galerina Earle
Hebeloma (Fr.) P. Kumm.
Hymenogaster Vittad.
Naucoria (Fr.) P. Kumm.
Phaeocollybia R. Heim
Psathyloma E. Horak ex Soop, J.A. Cooper & Dima
Psilocybe (Fr.) Kumm.
Wakefieldia Corner & Hawker
Weraroa SingerNotation1: The genus names above are followed by author(s) name(s). It is common, but not constant, for authors to implement their names using an abbreviation or initials.
Notation2: In cases where a species is no longer in its original genus name (and placed into a new genus), both the authority for the original genus name followed by that for the new name are given. The original author is placed in parentheses.
Taxonomic rank is used in mycology to place taxa into a systematically arranged hierarchy. Formal and less-than-formal ranks have been used or may be used, including Superdomain, Domain, Subdomain, Superkingdom, Kingdom, Subkingdom, Phylum, Division, Subphylum, Subdivision, Class, Subclass, Superfamily, Epifamily, Family, Subfamily, Infrafamily, Order, Suborder, Infraorder, Tribe, Subtribe, Infratribe, Genus, Subgenus, Clade, Subclade, Supersection, Section, Subsection, Species, Superspecies, Semispecies, Subspecies, Variety, Subvariety, Forma Specialis, Group, Species Complex, Species Aggregate, Series, Subseries, Form, Stirps, Subform, Strain, Substrain, Cryptic Species, Crypt. Temp., Incertae Sedis, Uncertain, Unknown, et cetera.
You should also become quite familiar with the term Subgenus. When mycologists are still in need of time to study multiple taxa, and they believe they are dealing with a genus that could be new, yet these taxa are highly similar to an established genus, they may temporarily classify a number of species into a subgenus (plural form = subgenera). Here's an example: Ganoderma subg. Elfvingia. This subgenus will have taxa that one day are classified into a new genus, placed into new sections, or be published otherwise. The purpose of telling you this stuff is so that you are aware you may need to identify collections to subgenus level, without the ability to be more specific. Many genera have subgenera.
Below: A collection currently in Ganoderma subg. Elfvingia. This subgenus is intended for non-laccate (non-shiny surface) species where the palisade (an arrangement of elongated, perpendicular cells in close proximity to each other) of caveman-club-shaped cells is absent in the surface of the basidiomes (the fruitbodies with spore-producing structures). The representative (type) species of this subgenus is Ganoderma applanatum.
Classification:
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Polyporales
Family: Ganodermataceae
Genus: Ganoderma
Subgenus: Ganoderma subg. Elfvingia
All formally, properly published names of fungi include a written description of the taxonomic characters that the author(s) was/were able to record. Let's look at a description of the species known as Psilocybe zapotecorum. The description initially describes the macroscopic characters (those features seen without high magnification), followed by microscopic characters. A few other details are also included with some descriptions, including aroma, taste, and reactions to certain chemicals. Usually a few Latin terms are used in descriptions. We'll get into why Latin is included further down.
Below: Psilocybe zapotecorum
Psilocybe zapotecorum R. Heim, Revue Mycol., Paris 22(1): 77 (1957)Pileus (20-)40-70(-110) mm diam., polymorphic, conic to convex, convex-plane or campanulate, regular or irregular, sometimes papillate, or subumbilicate, hygrophanous, yellowish pale to chocolate-brown, orangish-brown or cinnamon-brown, smooth, sublubricous, sometimes with white floccose scales from the veil at the margin. Lamellae adnexed to sinuate, whitish-brown or pale reddish-brown to dark violaceous, edges whitish. Stipe (70-)100-180(-200) x (5-)10-15(-20) mm, tapering upward, solid to hollow, fibrous, whitish to concolorous with pileus, covered by short or large, floccose, white appressed scales toward the base, frequently in multiannulate arrangement. Veil developed in young stages, as white, thin subarachnoid membrane, which sometimes forms an ephemeral subannulus. Context white and fleshy in pileus, fibrous, whitish to pale brownish or blackish in stipe. Pseudorhiza well developed, as a long, thick cordon or as thick, pseudofleshy, piriform, white mass.Odor and taste farinaceous.Spore print dark brown-violaceous.Basidiospores (5-)6-7(-8) x (3-)3.5-4.5(-5) x 3-4 µm, narrowly subellipsoid, oblong ellipsoid or obscurely subrhomboid in face-view, subellipsoid in side-view, thin-walled, wall 0.5-0.8 µm thick, pale to dark yellowish-brown, with a truncate germ pore, and a short and acute apiculus. Basidia (13-)(15-)(20-)22-29 x (4-)(5-) 6-7 µm, 4-spored, clavate or subvesiculose-subcylindric, with a middle constriction, hyaline. Pleurocystidia (12-)15-20(-24)(-28) x (3-)4-6(-8)(-10)(-12) µm, common, but difficult to find, hyaline, bottle shaped, subfusiform, subcylindric or subventricose, with a wide or narrow base, mucronate or with a short to very long neck up to 28 µm long., sometimes sublageniform, irregularly branched. Pseudocystidia (18-)(21-)25-33 (-40)(-56) x (6-)8-10(-16)(-17.5) µm, common, grayish, polymorphous, subfusiform, subventricose, subglobose or sublageniform,branched or lobulated, sometimes submoniliform, with a narrow or wide base,which is born in the trama hymenphoral. Cheilocystidia (14-)20-30(-40) x (4-)5-7(-8)(-10)(-20) µm, generally polymorphous, sublageniform or lageniform, regular or irregularly branched or lobulate, subcylindric or globose to subglobose, with a short or long neck, with a wide or narrow base, hyaline. Pileipellis subgelatinous, thin to thick, up to 15(-20) µm thick, hyphae 1.5-5 µm wide, thin-walled, hyaline to yellowish. Pileocystidia16-40 × 6-8(-10) µm, ventricose-subcylindric, submoniliform or subglobose, some strangled. Pileus trama with hyphae (1.5-)3-8 µm wide, some globose, up to 30 µm wide, thin-walled, hyaline to brownish, not incrusted. Subhymenium subcellular, elements 2-5 µm wide, hyaline and incrusted with yellowish-brown pigment. Trama hymenophoral regular or subregular, hyphae 2-20(-26) µm wide, thin- or thick–walled, some of them inflated, hyaline, occasionally incrusted with yellowish-brown pigment. Oleiferous hyphae 4-7 µm wide, infrequent, grayish or yellowish-gray. Caulocystidia (8-)11-25(-30)(-40) x(3.5-)7-8(-10) µm, polymorphous, sublageniform, ventricose-rostrate, subglobose or pyramidal, sometimes regular or irregularly branched, hyaline, solitary or in small groups. Clamp connections present.Right away, you should note that there are tons of words you may not be perfectly familiar with. You'll need a glossary to deal with that problem. Many mycologists wrote their descriptions with only other mycologists in mind, or possibly just their own self in mind. A painful percentage of mycologists have also written very poor descriptions, with the result that no mycologist and no person can understand what they wrote in its entirety - or at all. Many, if not most, descriptions need to be emended (edited and greatly improved). The above description is fine. It works. Could it be emended and made more effective? It could.
Latin. The Latin language was once required for descriptions or, alternatively, diagnoses. Latin is no longer required for descriptions and/or diagnoses, and these can now be either in English or Latin, but not in any other language. Regardless, it is highly common for authors to still use a few Latin words, probably to give their text a little classiness or exotic flair. I happen to like the use of a few Latin words. If you don't like it, you don't have to use it, but you'll still have to tolerate its existence from other authors.
The description above may make you want to take a u-turn and leave. Don't let it bother you. I recommend keeping focus on the words we can understand with full clarity, and not getting thrown off by any unintuitive English. Modern mycologists need to improve their language skills above that of their predecessors, while meeting the expectations of a newly enrolled high school student trying to understand their descriptions. Everyone involved in mycological literature should strive to use accurate English without ambiguity.
Notation1: Some taxa do not possess a description, but they may have a diagnosis. Some descriptions will be provided along with a diagnosis. A diagnosis is a statement of that which in the opinion of its author distinguishes a taxon from other taxa. Let's quickly take a look at a diagnosis:
**Pseudosperma amabile** Bandini, B. Oertel & Wehr, Czech Mycol. 72(2): 232 (2020)**D i a g n o s i s:** _Pseudosperma amabile_ is a stout species with a brown to dark brown pileus colour, greyish velipellis and smooth to rim(ul)ose or innately fibrillose pileus surface. The smooth spores measure 8.5–12.2 μm (av. 10.0 μm) × 5.3–7.4 μm (av. 6.4 μm), and the thin-walled cheilocystidia are often (sub)capitate, measuring 32–70 μm (av. 42 μm) × 9–23 μm (av. 14 μm). It grows on calcareous soil with frondose trees or conifers. *In these combined characteristics it differs from other species of the genus Pseudosperma.* No closely genetically related species are known.Notation2: Other taxa may have neither a description nor a diagnosis, and yet somehow, these names require study. In the event this happens, you will be out exploring in what I call the true, level one Abyss Department Of Mycology. The abyss goes further down, and we will not be getting into that stuff here. These descriptionless and diagnosisless names need to be addressed, and I don't have the answer yet for how to deal them properly. Just take note that this is going to happen, probably sooner than you expect, and it's going to be frustrating. Try not to get frustrated.
Some publications will include distinguishing characters without providing a formal area showing a Diagnosis. These characters are sometimes called distinctive characters, distinguishing features, distinctive features, distinguishing characteristics, or similar synonymous phrases. Sometimes this info is subtly imbedded into the text and will not stand out. You'll want to keep an eye out for this content, and perhaps even perform a search for "character" within the texts you browse during identification. These distinguishing characters can be applied to any level of classification, including genus. Here's one set of distinguishing characteristics to look at as an example:
The Genus _Lentinula_Pegler (1975) placed _Lentinus edodes_ and _Lentinus boryanus_ into the genus Lentinula by virtue of the non-decurrent lamellae (soon becoming free) and presence of inflated, sclerified (generative) hyphae. Other distinguishing characteristics of the genus are: 1) pileipellis fibrillose to squamose; 2) stipe central to excentric, firm; and 3) veil evanescent.Taken & modified from https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/Sydowia_58_0191-0289.pdf
Below: Lentinula edodes (The world famous "Shiitake" mushroom)
Classification:
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Omphalotaceae
Genus: Lentinula
Species: Lentinula edodes
Some of you may not need this information, but I think it's appropriate to include. Some people on this planet see things that others cannot - or choose not - to see. I have noticed that a percentage of people teaching at the university level believe fungi cannot be identified using photos. This is relatively false - depending on the photos, the visual system used to view those photos, and potentially other factors. Your eyes are likely to be capable of immediately observing traits (taxonomic characters) in one photograph to rule out certain fungi, and rule in certain fungi. Photos can definitely be used frequently for identification, but always yield to high caution and suspended conclusion when ingestion is being considered.
Here's what I look at immediately after opening an observation: First it's usually the substrate (tree base, wood chips, soil, etc). Second, whatever single feature stands out to me personally. This can be serrated cellular formations (teeth) at the cap perimeter (margin), mottled (spotted) gills, a bulbous (rounded & enlarged) stem base, pileus color(s), gill color(s), color changes upon handling, etc. With time and endurance, you will likely recognize features that specifically stand out to you as an identifier. This takes tenacity. It is these features (taxonomic characters) that subtly guide identifiers, especially those characters which stand out rather boldly. Your knowledge of taxonomic characters will grow over the years, and it may take you over a decade to become comfortable with many of them. You need excellent literature to assist you with this, including glossary definitions that are definitively understood without any room for ambiguity. Let's go thru a sample observation together, and I'll point out what I see and use language intended for everyone. First, if you haven't already adjusted your browser zoom to expand this list as large as possible, I'll ask you to do that now.
Below: Psilocybe yungensis
In this instance we only have four photos in our sample observation. Despite only having four photos, we can blatantly see taxonomic characters that rule out taxa and rule in taxa. Notice in the third photo that decaying wood is observable as the substrate. We can see this is a stipitate (stem-inclusive), lamellate (gill-inclusive) mushroom. It doesn't have teeth or pores, and it's fleshy rather than chondroid (hard and tough like cartilage). The caps have nearly nipple-like extensions (papillas). This specific papilla form can be called an acute papilla.The caps also have lines on them called striations. A little green appears to be present on the general cap surfaces, but not on the stems or gills. In general, the cap color appears to be caramel-dominant. The gills are relatively purple enough to call them purple. The gills are quite close to each other. The stems range in color dominance from a brown to an almost brown-burgundy, with some white. Notice the close-up photo of one of the stems. You should notice some white zigzag-like patterns, or differentiated white cellular areas. Different mycologists describe this feature in different ways, which is why we have so many synonyms to learn in taxonomy. I personally prefer calling them seismic coda marks. Notice also that there are subtle vertical lines on the stipe. In the fourth image we can see the spore print is purple enough to call it purple.
Let's pull up the following scientific paper titled The Genus Psilocybe and view page 150: https://mykoweb.com/systematics/literature/The%20Genus%20Psilocybe.pdf. This is a formal description of Psilocybe yungensis. We can use this description to compare the sample observation with it. We can also click on the Mushroom Observer name for Psilocybe yungensis and compare photographs if other observations have already been added.
In terms of applying a taxonomic/scientific name, let's start far away from approaching the genus Psilocybe. Let's start with the order Agaricales. Let's inspect the name Agaricales for clarity. On Mushroom Observer we use two different names for Agaricales.
- Agaricales sensu lato = gilled fungi. (sensu lato = "in the broad sense")
- Agaricales Underw. = fungi residing inside of a discrete phylogenetic grouping which may or may not have gills. (Notation: Phylogenetic = The genetic study of the evolutionary history and relationships among taxa using DNA). To view Lucien Marcus Underwood's text visit: https://ia600909.us.archive.org/28/items/mouldsmildewsmus00unde/mouldsmildewsmus00unde.pdf
Note: The number of instances in which Agaricales Underw. is the best possible name for an observation is very, very low. Agaricales sensu lato is our frequent starting point for gilled fungi when seeking a more specific ID than Fungi. Other orders exist, too, and it is good to be mindful of this.
If we are unable to conclude that this collection belongs in a specific genus or given a species name, we can propose Agaricales senus lato safely. The green on this collection combined with purple gills, a purple spore print, and a wood substrate slightly suggests the genus Psilocybe and other genera. The caramel-dominant cap with the papilla are further convincing facts that this collection belongs in Psilocybe. We can further be convinced in this instance because the original identifier is a true expert in the taxonomy of the genus Psilocybe. This is just an example, and I realize we could get more technical and sophisticated here.
Not only is the collection in Psilocybe, it's also in Psilocybe sect. Cordisporae. For more knowledge regarding this genus, please see https://mykoweb.com/systematics/literature/The%20Genus%20Psilocybe.pdf and https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254725842_Supplement_to_the_monograph_of_the_genus_Psilocybe
You will eventually have opportunities to identify fungi that cannot be placed into an order such as Agaricales. Sometimes observations of white mycelium growing on wood without fruits may be best suited for the phylum Basidiomycota. Other times you may see "sac fungi" which you can't identify with much specificity, so you may propose the phylum Ascomycota. You may also see bread molds that you can't get too specific with, in which case the phylum Zygomycota can be proposed. Other times you may be dealing with Chytrids, and the phylum Chytridiomycota may be proposed. There are other phyla (divisions) to be aware of, too, and they are: Cryptomycota, Zoopagomycota, and Mucoromycota. There are a couple of other questionable phyla names, too, but their status is not currently valid.
If you've already proposed a phylum name, and you know you're right, the next logical step can be an investigation of the class names within that phylum. Let's say there's a collection currently named Basidiomycota. What class names are under Basidiomycota? We can see this by selecting the hyperlink for Basidiomycota and then selecting Show Subtaxa. Let's have a look at the subtaxa of Basidiomycota:
Agaricomycetes
Agaricomycetidae
Atractiellomycetes
Basidiobolomycetes
Dacrymycetes
Exobasidiomycetes
Gasteromycetes
Polyporales sensu lato
Pucciniomycotina
Pucciniomycetes
Tremellomycetes
Tritirachiomycetes
Ustilaginomycetes
ZygodesmusIf you are a new identifier, you shouldn't concern yourself too much with these names, but you will want to gradually become familiar with them. Wikipedia can help you understand these names better.
Mushroom collectors really ought to consider spore prints when posting their observations. The spore print is an easy way to assist in the identification process. A spore print is a gathering of many, many spores ejected from the gills, pores, or other spore-bearing surface. Although spores are individually invisible to the un-aided, un-magnified eye, when hundreds of thousands or millions of spores appear in a spore print, they leave a color which is taxonomically helpful. Spore prints can also be used to grow mycelium, and eventually mushrooms, too.
Note: Spore deposits can often be seen on the pileus surfaces in collections of specimens found growing very closely together. Sometimes spore deposit colors can also be seen on solitary specimen stipes, or on the substrate(s) and sorrounding surface areas.
Here's how to make a spore print:
✘ Before going hunting, clean a tupperware container with excellence and wash your hands. Place the tupperware container in a clean, new paper bag for extra cleanliness. Go straight to the site of the mushrooms and swiftly collect them into the tupperware container. Return to your living quarters in haste.
✘ Immediately after returning from hunting to your living quarters, wash your hands thoroughly with effort.
✘ Clean a table surface or shelf surface intended for this task.
✘ Tear off a piece of new aluminum foil. Its size should be slightly larger than the cap you are about to use.
✘ Using a clean knife, scissors, or your hands, swiftly remove the stipe of a freshly harvested mushroom, severing it from the pileus (cap).
✘ Place the cap onto the aluminum foil with the gills or pores facing the foil (face down).
✘ Get a freshly cleaned and dried, clear drinking glass that can fit nicely over and around the cap - and place it there. Rubbing alcohol can be used to help cleanse the glass beforehand if necessary.
✘ Wait roughly 24 hours and do not remove the glass - not even for a moment.
✘ After 24 hours approximately you should now have a good spore print.
✘ After removing the drinking glass, immediately place the spore printed foil into a new ziplock bag. Seal it thoroughly, confidently. This can then be mailed out to the appropriate mycologist for further study using Fedex, UPS, DHL, or a fast shipper of your choice. You can write a note on the ziplock bag using a permanent marker for the mycologist so he/she knows what they are dealing with in truth. Most people just include the Mushroom Observer observation number. Some prefer including a collection card.Below: A purple spore print of Psilocybe stuntzii taken directly on a microscope glass slide
An abundance of terms describing different surfaces of pilei and stipes exists. Some terms have been ambiguously defined. Some have never been properly defined, and some terms are quite helpful in describing a collection. Some have never been properly illustrated, and a few terms have been illustrated correctly as of 2022. More artists and advanced photographers are needed to generate excellent photographs that accurately show and limit each taxonomic character perfectly.
To Be Developed.
The following category list is a somewhat overlapping, informal, divided index of fungal groupings. It is designed to give you an introduction to popular fungi without being too long and detailed. This is a very rapid introduction which will require your amplified focus and gradual immersion. These informal categories are based upon dominant taxonomic characters or noteworthy groupings. Dominant taxonomic characters can vary among some genera, some specimens of the same species, and even the same collection of the same species. For this reason, some genera names listed below are in multiple categories. Tip: It is a better approach to know several species very well, rather than falsely knowing all of these genera.
Stipitate-lamellate mushrooms are simply those fungi which exhibit both a stem and gills.
Know Some Of The Most Frequent Genera: Agaricus, Agrocybe, Alnicola, Amanita, Armillaria, Arrhenia, Bolbitius, Calocybe, Candolleomyces, Chlorophyllum, Chromosera, Chroogomphus, Clitocybe, Clitocybula, Clitopilus, Collybiopsis, Conocybe, Coprinellus, Coprinopsis, Coprinus, Cortinarius, Crepidotis, Crinipellis, Cuphophyllus, Cyptotrama, Cystoderma, Cystolepiota, Deconica, Entoloma, Flammula, Galerina, Gerronema, Gliophorus, Gomphidius, Gymnopus, Gymnopilus, Hebeloma, Hygrocybe, Hygrophoropsis, Hygrophorus, Hypholoma, Infundibulicybe, Inocybe, Inosperma, Laccaria, Lacrymaria, Lactarius, Lactocollybia, Lentinus, Lepiota, Lepista, Leratiomyces, Leucoagaricus, Leucocoprinus, Leucopaxillus, Limacella, Macrocybe, Macrolepiota, Marasmiellus, Marasmius, Melanoleuca, Mycena, Naucoria, Omphalotus, Oudemansiella, Panaeolus, Parasola, Phaeocollybia, Pholiota, Pholiotina, Pleurotus, Pluteus, Protostropharia, Psathyrella, Pseudobaeospora, Psilocybe, Russula, Strobilurus, Stropharia, Tetrapyrgos, Tricholoma, Tricholomopsis, Tubaria, Volvariella, Xeromphalina
Know Some Of The Less Frequent Genera: Britzelmayria, Calonarius, Cantharocybe, Clitocella, Coniolepiota, Connopus, Cyclocybe, Cystodermella, Dermoloma, Entocybe, Floccularia, Heimiomyces, Heinemannomyces, Hemimycena, Hemipholiota, Hemistropharia, Hymenagaricus, Hypsizygus, Meottomyces, Mycopan, Omphalina, Panaeolopsis, Phaeonematoloma, Phlegmacium, Phloeomana, Pleuroflammula, Psathyloma, Porpolomopsis, Pseudoclitocybe, Pseudoomphalina, Rhizomarasmius, Rhodocollybia, Rhodocybe, Rickenella, Roridomyces, Simocybe, Tapinella, Trichocybe, Tricholosporum, Tulosesus, Xerula,
Preface: Note that many fungi lamellae start out with sterile white gills that develop color changes as the specimens mature. In some instances there will also be spotted (mottled) gills in which some areas of sterility may exist with other areas developing color changes as a result of basidia and spore maturation.
Pink And/Or Salmon Dominantly Colored Lamellae: Agaricus, Entoloma, Pluteus, Rugosomyces,
Black Dominant And/Or Mottled Black/White Lamellae: Coprinus, Lacrymaria, Panaeolus,
Brown Dominant Lamellae: Agrocybe, Conocybe, Cyclocybe, Galerina, Hebeloma, Panaeolus, Pholiota, Psathyrella, Psilocybe, Tubaria,
Purple Dominant Lamellae: Cortinarius, Hypholoma, Laccaria, Lepista, Psilocybe, Stropharia, Tricholosporum,
Yellow Dominant Lamellae: Bolbitius, Gymnopilus, Humidicutis, Leucocoprinus, Phylloporus, Russula,
Mature White Dominant Lamellae: Amanita, Gomphidius, Hemimycena, Leucoagaricus, Pleurotus,
Orange Dominant Lamellae: Galerina, Gymnopilus, Humudicutis, Omphalotus, Tubaria,
Green Dominant Lamellae: Chlorophyllum, Gliophorus,
Gray Dominant Lamellae: Psathyrella,
Red Dominant Lamellae: Hygrocybe,
Other:
To Be Developed.
Reduced Stipitate, Lamellate Fungi: This informal group comprises pseudo-stipitate gilled fungi that have a very short (reduced) stipe to nearly not having a stipe.
Know the genera Campanella, Cheimonophyllum, Mycena, Panellus, Pleurotus, Sarcomyxa, Scytinotus,
To Be Developed.
Non-Stipitate, Gilled Fungi: Fungi without a stipe or pseudostipe while exhibiting lamellae.
Know the genera Campanella, Hohenbuehelia, Lentinellus, Pseudomerulius, Schizophyllum, Tapinella,
To Be Developed.
Lichens are multi-species lifeforms consisting of a symbiotic relationship between a fungus (the mycobiont) and a photosynthetic partner (the photobiont or phycobiont), which is usually a green alga or a cyanobacterium.
Byssoid Lichens: Lichens with a wispy growth form, and having the appearance of teased wool. Know the genera Coenogonium, Cryptophaea, Sagenidiopsis, Tasmania,
Crustose Lichens: Lichens in crust-form that are so tightly attached to the rocks, trees, sidewalks, or soils that they can’t be removed without damaging the substrate. Know the genera Icmadophila,
Filamentose Lichens: Lichens with a stringy appearance. Know the genera _
Foliose Lichens: The most common form of lichens that grow on the trunks of trees or on rocks in the shady woods. They’re usually gray-green and form basically circular colonies. Know the genera Peltigera,
Fruticose Lichens: Lichens appearing like tiny, leafless branches. Know the genera Cladina,
eprose Lichens: Lichens with a powdery appearance. Know the genera _
Squamulose Lichens: Lichens that are scaly in appearance. Know the genera _
Structureless Lichens: Lichens that do not have a recognizable thallus structure, including gelatinous lichens where the cyanobacteria produce a polysaccharide that absorbs and retains water. Know the genera _
To Be Developed.
More:
http://www.lias.net/
https://lichenportal.org/cnalh/imagelib/index.php?target=genus
https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/2061
https://blogs.ed.ac.uk/lichenwalk/wp-content/uploads/sites/4888/2021/08/ID_GUIDE.pdf
Amaurodermatoid: Resembling or identical to the genus Amauroderma.
Know the genera Amauroderma, Auriscalpium, Cristataspora, Foraminispora, Ganoderma, Haddowia, Humphreya, and Sanguinoderma.
To Be Developed.
https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/2061
Stipitate-Toothed: Those fungi exhibiting a stipe and teeth.
Know the genera Auriscalpium, Bankera, Beenakia, Climacodon, Hydnellum, Mycorrhaphium, Phellodon, Pseudohydnum _, _Sarcodon, Steccherinum, .
To Be Developed.
Resupinate-Toothed Fungi: Lacking any stipe and exhibiting teeth rather than gills or pores. They also lay flat on the substrate, and typically do not bend up and away from the substrate, such as those fungi known as effused-reflexed.
Know the genera Hydnochaete, Hyphodontia, Irpex, Odonticium, Dentipellis, Dentocorticium, Hydnocristella, Mycoacia, Phlebia, Radulodon, Radulomyces, Steccherinum, and Sarcodontia.
To Be Developed.
Tentaculiform: Exhibiting sea anemone-like tentacles or similar tentacle-like extensions.
Know the genera Aseroe, Deflexula, Dentipellicula, Gymnosporangium, Hericium, Mucronella, Phaeopterula, Pterula, Pterulicium, Pycnoporellus, Radulomyces,
To Be Developed.
Desert & Sand Fungi: Those fungi which can literally develop in sandy terrains, sometimes including desert terrain.
Know the genera Agaricus, Amanita, Aspicilia, Astraeus, Battarrea, Chlamydopus _, _Chlorophyllum, Coprinus, Gymnoascus, Laccaria, Montagnea, Phallus, Phellorinia, Pisolithus, Podaxis, Psathyrella, Sabuloglossum, Secotium, Terfezia, Tirmania, and Tulostoma.
Note: The best way to search for these names on Google may be to to use one genus name plus the word "sand" in quotes.
To Be Developed.
Spathulate & Earth Tongue Fungi: Somewhat spoon-shaped, with some species almost resembling caveman club fungi or coral fungi.
Know the genera Cudonia, Geoglossum, Glutinoglossum, Leotia, Loweomyces, Microglossum, Neolecta, Sabuloglossum, Spathularia, Thuemenidium, and Trichoglossum.
To Be Developed.
Exudate, Guttulate, & Droplet Fungi: Fungi which generally exhibit roundish drops of water and/or other chemicals in various colors which form typically upon the pileus and/or stipe surface. Sometimes these drops will also be seen on the gills or pores, and even on cultured myceliums.
Know the genera Abortiporus, Arcyria, Calcipostia, Coprinopsis, Exsudoporus, Fomitiporia, Fomitopsis, Hemiaustroboletus, Hericium, Hortiboletus, Hydnellum, Hyphodontia, Hypomyces, Inonotus, Ischnoderma, Leucoagaricus, Leucocoprinus, Mycena, Nectria, Niveoporofomes, Oligoporus, Panaeolus, Poria, Postia, Pseudoinonotus, Pubctularia, Rhodofomes, Ryvardenia, Tetrapyrgos, Xylaria,
To Be Developed.
Non-Stipitate Tooth Fungi That Are Not Resupinate: Fungi without a stipe or pseudostipe which exhibit teeth, but they do not lay flat on the substrate as a thin layer of fungi.
Know the genera Auriscalpium, Cerrena, Hericium, Spongipellis, Steccherinum
To Be Developed.
Tile (Imbricate) Fungi: Growing bracket-like in multiple tiers.
Know the genera Auricularia, Bjerkandera, Byssomerulius, Climacodon, Fomes, Flaviporus_, Fuscoporia, Ganoderma, Globifomes, Grifola, Inonotus, Ischnoderma, Phaeolus, Phellodon, Podoserpula, Polyporus, Postia, Protomerulius, Pseudoinonotus, Pseudomerulius, Rigidoporus, Ryvardenia, Sarcodon, Spongipellis, Stereum, Thelephora, Trametes, Trametopsis, Trichaptum, Tyromyces, and Vanderbylia.
To Be Developed.
Cerebriform Fungi: Appearing brain-like or somewhat similar to a human brain.
Know the genera Calvatia, Ductifera, Gyromitra, Podoscypha, Sparassis, Tremella,
To Be Developed.
Sparassis-Like (Sometimes Some Of These Taxa Are Called "Cauliflower-Like") Fungi: Definition Pending.
Know the genera Cotylidia, Grifola, Irpex, Podoscypha, Sebacina, Sparassis,
To Be Developed.
Anastomosing: Lamellae exhbit irregular transverse connections. Know the genera Campanella, Marasmius,
Furcate: Forked lamellae. Know the genera _
Intervenose: Veins run in between the lamellae. Know the genera Mycena, Tetrapyrgos, Xeromphalina,
Transvenose: Gills have veins on their surfaces. Know the genera Entoloma, Lactifluus, Phylloporus,
To Be Developed.
Falsely Gilled & Cantharellus Gilled, Stipitate Fungi: These are fungi which exhibit ridges rather than true gills, although they can easily trick people into looking like gilled fungi.
Know the genera Gomphus, Craterellus, Cantharellus, Polyozellus, and Turbinellus.
To Be Developed.
Non-Hard Stipitate-Poroid Fungi: Fungi with a stipe and pores that are not chondroid (not hard and tough like cartilage).
Know the genera Afroboletus, Amoenoboletus, Aureoboletus, Austroboletus, Baorangia, Binderoboletus, Boletellus, Boletinellus, Boletus, Bothia, Buchwaldoboletus, Butyriboletus, Cacaoporus, Caloboletus, Cerioporus, Chalciporus, Coltricia, Corneroboletus, Cotylidia, Cristaspora, Crocinoboletus, Cupreoboletus, Cyanoboletus, Exsudoporus, Filoboletus, Fistulinella, Fuscoboletinus, Fuscoporia, Gastroboletus, Gyrodon, Gyroporus, Harrya, Hemiaustroboletus, Hemileccinum, Hortiboletus, Imleria, Inflatostereum, Jahnoporus, Laccocephalum, Lanmaoa, Leccinum, Lentinus, Neoalbatrellus, Neoboletus, Paragyrodon, Phaeolus, Polyporus, Porphyrellus, Pseudoboletus, Psiloboletinus, Pulchroboletus, Pulveroboletus, Scutiger, Strobilomyces, Suillellus, Suillus, Sutorius, Tengioboletus, Tylopilus, Veloporphyrellus, Xanthoconium, Xerocomus, and Xerocomellus.
Bluing Genera: Boletus, Boletellus, Gyroporus, Neoboletus, Suillus, Xerocomus,
Red-Pored Genera: Boletus, Chalciporus,
White-Pored & Off-White Genera: Leccinum, Tylopilus, Xanthoconium
Yellow Pore Surface Genera: Heimioporus, Suillus, Veloboletus, Xanthoconium,
Reticulate Genera: Boletus,
Favolus-Like Genera: Favolaschia, Favolus, Lentinus, Neofavolus, Panellus, Polyporus,
To Be Developed.
Hard Stipitate-Poroid Fungi: Mushrooms which have a stem and pores under the pileus, but they are chondroid (hard and tough like cartilage). In several instances, some of these fungi may not be quite chondroid, but they will generally be tougher and less soft than Boletus edulis.
Know the genera Amauroderma, Cristataspora, Ganoderma, Picipes, Polyporous, Royoporus, Trichaptum,
To Be Developed.
Image Pending
Reduced Stipitate, Poroid Fungi That Are Not Crust Or Effused-Reflexed Fungi
Know the genera Favolaschia, Polyporus, Tapinella,
To Be Developed.
Image Pending
Non-Stipitate, Poroid Fungi That Are Not Crust Fungi
Know the genera Abortiporus, Austeria, Bjerkandera, Cerrena, Cyanosporus, Fomes, Fomitopsis, Fulvifomes, Ganoderma, Globifomes, Heterobasidion, Inflatostereum, Inocutis, Laricifomes, Niveoporofomes, Postia, Pycnoporellus, Pyrofomes, Rhodofomes, Ryvardenia, Stereum, Trametes, Tyromyces,
To Be Developed.
Cup & Pseudo-Cup Fungi
Know the genera Ascocoryne, Bulgaria, Chaetothiersia, Chromocyphella, Dumontinia, Geopyxis, Guepiniopsis, Humaria, Otidea, Lachnella, Lachnellula, Lachnum, Mollisia, Pachyella, Peziza, Phillipsia, Phlebia, Phlogiotis, Plectania, Plicaria, Sarcoscypha, Scutellinia, Trichopeziza, Urnula,
See the observations here: https://mushroomobserver.org/glossary_terms/12
Stipitate-Cup & Pseudo-Stipitate Fungi:
Non-Stipitate Cup Fungi:
To Be Developed.
Truffles, False Truffles, Sclerotia, & Pseudosclerotia
Truffles: Know the genera Choiromyces, Geopora, Hydnocystis, Hypholoma, Leucangium, Panaeolus, Paurocotylis, Peziza, Stephensia, Terfezia, Tirmania, Tuber,
False Truffles: Know the genera Alpova, Gautireia,
Sclerotia: Know the genera Boletus, Ceriporia, Cheilymenia, Claviceps, Entoloma, Fibulorhizoctonia, Polyporus, Psilocybe, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Trechispora,
Pseudosclerotia: Know the genera Grifola, Morchella,
To Be Developed.
Volvate Fungi: Mushrooms that exhibit a volva at the stipe base.
Know the genera Amanita, Battarrea, Clathrus, Limacella, Macrolepoiota, Phallus, Saproamanita, Volvopluteus, Volvariella, and other genera.
To Be Developed.
Basal Disc Fungi: Mushrooms exhibiting a ring at the very base of the stem, or more than one ring.
Know the genera Coprinus, Coprinopsis, Hemimycena, Mycena, .
To Be Developed.
Bioluminescent Fungi: Fungi which emit light or otherwise glow in the darkness
Know the genera Amparoina, Armillaria, Favolachia, Gerronema, Mycena, Neonothopanus, Omphalotus, Panellus, Prunulus, and Roridomyces.
To Be Developed.
Morels, Gyromitras, Helvellas, & Similars
Know the genera Balsamia, Barssia, Costantinella, Discina, Disciotis, Fischerula, Gymnohydnotrya, Gyromitra, Helvella, Hydnotrya, Imaia, Kalapuya, Leucangium, Morchella, Pseudorhizina, Underwoodia, Verpa, and Wynnella.
To Be Developed.
Agaricicolous Fungi: Fungi that grow on other fungi
Know the genera Asterophora, Cladobotryum, Dactylium, Entoloma, Hypomyces, Spinellus, Syzygites, Syzygospora, and Tolypocladium.
More: https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/75
To Be Developed.
Caveman Club Fungi
Know the genera Clavariadelphus, Urnula, Xylaria,
To Be Developed.
Conifer Cone Fungi: Fungi which are often seen on pine cones and similar cones from trees
Know the genera Auriscalpium, Baeospora, Clitocybe, Collybiopsis, Diplodia, Gymnopilus, Gymnopus, Lachnum, Lecanora, Leccinum, Lepiota, Lycoperdon, Marasmius, Mycena, Nidula, Platismatia, Psilocybe, Sphaeropsis, Strobilurus, Suillus, and Xeromphalina.
To Be Developed.
Pseudorhiza Fungi: Mushrooms which form a root-like extension at the base of a mushroom stem, oftentimes capable of growing roughly twelve inches deep into the substrate, but more commonly about two to six inches deep.
Know the genera Baeospora, Caulorhiza, Mycena, Oudemansiella, Phaeocollybia, Psilocybe, Rhodocollybia, Sarcodon, Termitomyces,
To Be Developed.
Coral & Pseudoclavarioid Fungi: Resembling a coral reef or an oceanic coral species.
Know the genera Alloclavaria, Artomyces, Calocera, Clavaria, Clavariachaete, , Clavulina, Clavulinopsis, Lachnocladium, Lentaria, Pterula, Ramaria, Ramariopsis, Scytinopogon, Sebacina, Tremellodendron, Sulzbacheromyces, Tremellodendron, Tremellodendropsis.
To Be Developed.
Coprophilus Fungi: Fungi growing on any form of dung.
Know the genera Bolbitius, Chaetomium, Conocybe, Coprinopsis, Coprinus, Crucibulum, Cyathus, Deconica, Panaeolus, Protostropharia, and Psilocybe.
To Be Developed.
Musicolous: Fungi which grow on – or with – mosses.
Know the genera Albatrellus, Alnicola, Arrhenia, Cantharellula, Chromelosporiopsis, Collybiopsis, Cortinarius, Cotylidia, Craterellus, Deconica, Entocybe, Galerina, Gerronema, Hygrophoropsis, Lactarius, Lichenomphalia, Multiclavula, Mycena, Naucoria, Omphalina, Pachyella, Psilocybe, Retiboletus, Rickenella, Rimbachia, Suillus,
To Be Developed.
Puffballs, Stipitate Puffballs, Earthstars, & Similars:
Know the genera Abstoma, Acutocapillitium, Apioperdon _, _Arachnion _, _Arachniopsis, Astraeus, Bovista, Bovistella, Bryoperdon, Calbovista, Calostoma, Calvatia, Calvatiopsis, Disciseda, Gastropila, Geastrum, Glyptoderma, Holocotylon, Japonogaster, Langermannia, Lycoperdon, Lycoperdopsis, Morganella, Mycenastrum, Rhopalogaster, Tulostoma, and Vascellum.
Note: Also see the category Nuanced Ball & Similar Fungi.
To Be Developed.
Nuanced Ball & Similar Fungi:
Know the genera Bovista, Calvatia, Calbovista, Cyttaria, Phellorinia, Pisolithus, Scleroderma,
To Be Developed.
Entomopathogenic Fungi: Parasitic fungi growing on/in insects killing or seriously disabling them.
Know the genera Akanthomyces, Beauveria, Cordyceps, Metacordyceps, Ophiocordyceps, Pandora, Isaria, Hirsutella, Metarhizium, and Nomuraea.
To Be Developed.
Laterally Or Eccentrically Stipitate Fungi:
Know the genera Amauroderma, Bresadolia, Cerioporus, Coltricia, Dacryopinax, Oligoporus, Panellus, Polyporus, Lentinus, Rhodocybe, and Trichocybe.
To Be Developed.
Pleurotoid Fungi: Fungi resembling or somewhat resembling the genus Pleurotus
Know the genera Cheimonophyllum, Crepidotus, Hohenbuehelia, Lentinellus, Ossicaulis, Panellus, Panus, Pleurocybella, Pleurotus, Phyllotopsis, Resupinatus, Sarcomyxa, Tapinella, and Tectella.
To Be Developed.
Ink Fungi: Those which exhibit fruit bodies which, upon maturity, – and under specific environmental conditions – can dissolve into a black, ink-like substance.
Know the genera Tulosesus, Narcissea, Coprinellus, Coprinus, Parasola, and Coprinopsis. Also know the genera Podaxis and Montagnea.
To Be Developed.
Antrodioid Fungi:
Know the genera Antrodia, Ceriporia, Ceriporiopsis, Emmia, Fibroporia, Inonotus, Irpex, Neoantrodia, Oxyporus, Perenniporia, Poria, and Yuchengia.
More: https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/980
To Be Developed.
Hypogeous Fungi: Occurring or living below the surface of the ground.
Know the genera Alpova, Arcangeliella, Astraeus, Brauniellula, Chamonixia, Chondrogaster, Choiromyces, Cortinarius, Destuntzia, Elasmomyces, Endogone, Endoptychum, Galeropsis, Gastroboletus, Gastrocybe, Gautieria, Geopora, Gomphogaster, Gymnoglossum, Gymnomyces, Gyrophragmium, Hydnangium, Hymenogaster, Hypholoma, Hysterangium, Leucangium, Leucogaster, Leucophleps, Longula, Macowanites, Martellia, Melanogaster, Montagnea, Mycolevis, Nivatogastrium, Octavianina, Peziza, Phallogaster, Phellorina, Podaxis, Protogautieria, Pyrenogaster, Radiigera, Richoniella, Rhizopogon, Rhopalogaster, Royoungia, Scleroderma, Sclerogaster, Sedecula, Setchelliogaster, Terfezia, Thaxterogaster, Tirmania, Truncocolumella, Tuber, Weraroa, and Zelleromyces.
More: https://www.natruffling.org/basidkey.pdf
To Be Developed.
Gelatin “Candy”/Jelly, Pseudo-Transparent, Translucent, & Semi-Translucent Fungi:
Gelatin Candy/Jelly: Know the classes Tremellales, Dacrymycetales, Auriculariales, and Sebacinales without intimidation. Specifically know the genera Ascocoryne, Calocera, Dacrymyces, Dacryopinax, Exidia, Guepiniopsis, Heterotextus, Myxarium, Tremella, ,
Pseudo-Transparent/Semitransparent: Know the genera Delicatula, Gliophorus, Pseudohydnum, Roridomyces,
Translucent: Fungi allowing light, but not detailed shapes, to pass through their fruits. Know the genera Campanella, Mucronella, Mycena, Roridomyces,
Semi-Translucent: Know the genera Ductifera,
To Be Developed.
Mucoid, Viscid, & Subviscid Fungi:
Know the genera Aureoboletus, Bolbitius, Chroogomphus, Codinaeella, Cortinarius, Gliophorus, Gomphidius, Hygrophorus, Mycena, Panaeolus, Psilocybe, Tylopilus,
To Be Developed.
Stinkhorn Fungi:
Know the genera Anthurus, Aseroe, Blumenavia, Clathrus, Colus, Dictyophora, Itajahya, Ileodictyon, Laternea, Ligiella, Lysurus, Mutinus, Phallus, Protubera, Pseudocolus, Simblum, and Staheliomyces.
To Be Developed.
Tubular Fungi: This category is NOT intended for stipitate-poroid fungi such as those seen in the boletoid genera. It is for fungi that have a tubular-dominant overall appearance.
Know the genera Camillea, Craterellus, Henningsomyces.
To Be Developed.
Lactifer & Milk-Bearing Fungi:
Know the genera Lactarius, Lactifluus, Multifurca, Suillus, and Zelleromyces.
To Be Developed.
Image Pending
Bread Mold Fungi:
Know the genera Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Monascus, Penicillium, Rhizopus, and _.
To Be Developed.
Inversely Gilled Fungi:
Know the genera Campanella, Cheimonophyllum, Clitopilus, Crepidotus, Daedalea, Hohenbuehelia, Lentinellus, Marasmiellus, Phyllotopsis, Pleurocybella, Pleurotellus, Pseudomerulius, Resupinatus, Sarcoscypha, Schizophyllum, and Tectella.
To Be Developed.
Crop & Leaf “Disease” Fungi:
Crop Fungi: Know the genera Anthracnose, Aphanomyces, Aspergillus, Botrytis, Ceratocystis, Claviceps, Colletotrichum, Cunninghamella, Didymella, Erysiphe, Fusarium Gibberella, Gymnosporangium, Helicobasidium, Leveillula, Microsphaera, Mycosphaerella, Phytophthora, Plasmodiophora, Podosphaera, Puccinia, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, Septoria, Stemphylium, Synchytrium, Uncinula, Ustilago,
Leaf, Stem & Needle Fungi: Know the genera Albugo, Alternaria, Botrytis, Cercospora, Drepanopeziza, Erysiphe, Golovinomyces, Leptosphaeria, Puccinia, Phomopsis, Sawadaea, Scleroderris, Sclerotinia, Septoria,
Leaf Spot Fungi: Know the genera Alternaria, Anthracnose, Ascochyta, Cercospora, Corynespora, Cylindrocladium, Cylindrosporium, Didymella, Entyloma, Fabraea, Marssonina, Phyllosticta, Pleospora, Ramularia, and Septoria.
Flower Fungi:
Grass & Cereal/Grain Fungi: Blumeria,
Bark, Tree Root, Branch & Xylem Fungi: Know the genera Gymnosporangium, Lachnellula, Lepteutypa, Leptosphaeria, Neonectria, Ophiognomonia, Rhizoctonia, Thyronectria,
To Be Developed.
Grassland Fungi: Mushrooms commonly seen in lawns and fields of grass.
Know the genera Agaricus, Amanita, Armillaria, Calvatia, Chlorophyllum, Collybiopsis, Conocybe, Coprinus, Deconica, Inocybe, Marasmius, Panaeolus, Parasola, Psilocybe,
To Be Developed.
Maze-Gill Fungi:
Know the genera Brunneoporus, Cerrena, Daedelea, Daedaleopsis, Earliella, Fibroporia, Porodaedalea, Trametopsis, and Trametes.
To Be Developed.
Bird’s Nest Fungi:
Know the genera Crucibulum, Cyathus, Mycocalia, Nidula, Nidularia and Sphaerobolus.
To Be Developed.
Trumpet’s Bell & Similar Fungi: Mushrooms shaped like the end-part of a trumpet.
Know the genera Cantharellus, Cladonia, Clavicorona, Craterellus, Gomphus, Pleruotus, Polyozellus, Turbinellus, Xeromphalina.
To Be Developed.
Crust Fungi: This phrase may need to be re-worded.
Know the genera Corticium, Kretzschmaria _, _Lyomyces, Mycoacia, Peniophora, Protomerulius, Sarcoporia, Sertulicium, Subulicystidium, Terana, Tomentella, Trechispora, Tubulicrinis, Vararia, Xenasma, Xenasmatella, Xylodon.
To Be Developed.
Secotioid & Pseudosecotioid Fungi: Secotioid fungi are an intermediate growth form between mushroom-like hymenomycetes and closed bag-shaped gasteromycetes, where an evolutionary process of gasteromycetation has started but not run to completion. Secotioid fungi may or may not have opening caps, but in any case they lack the vertical geotropic orientation of the hymenophore needed to allow the spores to be dispersed by wind, and the basidiospores are not forcibly discharged. Sub-secotioid fungi are nearly identical to the secotioid fungi, but they are slightly further away from being secotioid, and the pileus has opened more-so.
Know the genera Agaricus, Conocybe, Cortinarius, Endoptychum, Galeropsis, Gastroboletus, Gymnogaster, Gyrophragmium, Lentinus, Montagnea, Notholepiota, Panaeolopsis, Panaeolus, Pholiota, Podaxis, Psilocybe, and Secotium. Note: Most species in these genera are NOT secotioid or pseudosecotioid.
To Be Developed.
Effused-Reflexed Fungi: A portion of the fruiting body is closely appressed to the substrate except for the margin which flares out to form a pileus or turn back (becoming reflexed) at the margin to form an incurved, pileus-like feature.
Know the genera Antrodia, Brunneoporus, Byssomerulius, Coriolus, Datronia, Earliella, Fomitopsis, Fulvifomes, Heterobasidion, Irpex, Ischnoderma, Laetiporus, Nigrofomes, Perenniporia, Phlebia, Postia, Punctularia, Steccherinum, Trichaptum, Tropicoporus, Tyromyces, Xylobolus,
To Be Developed.
Ciliate & Eyelash Fungi: Fungi exhibiting eyelash-like protrusions radially on the pileus margin or apex margin.
Know the genera Hymenotorrendiella, Lachnella, Lachnum, Lentinus, Scutellinia, Torrendiella,
To Be Developed.
Gourmet & Medicinal Fungi: Gourmet fungi suitable for restaurants and in-home dining, along with medicinal fungi reportedly medically beneficial. This informal, ever-growing category is NOT inclusive of psychedelic fungi, despite the apparent desire of others. Continued, advanced research is not only needed for the fungi listed below and their chemical components, people involved in this aspect of science are well underway in doing so. More funding and studies appear to be necessary - along with addressing just how medicinal some of these fungi listed below truly are. I doubt most doctors would recommend using these fungi. However, some of these fungi used alongside some pharmaceutical chemicals may enhance the body's ability to heal. This list is more for your research and knowledge, rather than a strict list demonstrating factual healing powers.
Gourmet Fungi: Know the genera Agaricus, Auricularia, Boletus, Calvatia, Cantharellus, Flammulina, Grifola, Lentinula, Lyophyllum, Morchella, Pleurotus, Tricholoma, and Tuber.
Medicinal Fungi: Know the genera Cordyceps, Fomitopsis, Ganoderma, Hericium, Inonotus, Phellinus, Pleurotus, Polyporus, Poria, Trametes, Tremella,
To Be Developed.
Poisonous & Lethal Fungi: Fungi that must be distinguished from other fungi when consumption or taxonomy are considered. Note that the psychedelic genera are NOT specifically implemented here, despite the apparent desire of some folks who believe they should be included. Certainly, I can understand the desire to do this, but it is not appropriate for educational purposes.
Poisonous Fungi: Know the genera Agaricus, Amanita, Ampulloclitocybe, Chlorophyllum, Clitocybe, Coprinopsis, Cortinarius, Cudonia, Echinoderma, Entoloma, Galerina, Gyromitra, Hapalopilus, Hebeloma, Helvella, Hypholoma, Imperator, Inocybe, Lactarius, Mycena, Neonothopanus, Omphalotus, Paralepistopsis, Pholiotina, Podostroma, Ramaria, Rubroboletus, Russula, Sarcosphaera, Trojia, Turbinellus,
Potentially Lethal Fungi: Know the genera Amanita, Conocybe, Cortinarius, Galerina, Inocybe, Pholiotina, Podostroma,
Currently Questionable: Know the genera _
To Be Developed.
Deeply Psychedelic Fungi: Fungi containing one or more of the following chemicals. Psilocybin, Psilocin, Cyanescin (Baeocystin), Nor-Cyanescin (Nor-Baeocystin), Aeruginascin, MAOIs, and related chemicals. This informal category of fungi has vital notes you need to know. First, this list does not include Amanita species. Those are not known to have ever induced an experience that is anywhere near parallel to the genera listed below. Second, and more importantly, some species in the genera listed below are not only poisonous, they can literally be lethal - and in a very horrible manner. If you study these genera, make sure you know which taxa you could be dealing with, and yield to strong caution and deep taxonomic assurance. Note also that these genera have not been studied to the point of finalizing their taxonomic positions, nor in their complete genomic sequences, nor in their complete chemical analysis. More people are needed internationally to study these fungi using state-of-the-art gear and methods - along with ethics. Lastly, more genera are likely to reveal the presence of psychedelic compounds identical to, or similar to, those mentioned below.
Know the genera Conocybe, Galerina, Galeropsis, Gymnopilus, Inocybe, Inosperma, Mycena, Panaeolopsis, Panaeolus, Pholiotina, Pluteus, and Psilocybe.
To Be Developed.
When you first endeavor to photograph fungi, you probably will need some tips for making observations. Some folks obtain poor photographs taken in excess haste, and others take professional level photographs that not only take lots of time in the field, they also can require software processing. Regardless of what camera you use and the amount of time you invest, the following photographs should be sought out whenever possible - in an ideal situation. It's especially important to do this when dealing with rare fungi. This will help identifiers. The following comments are over-zealous but let the reader be assured: These comments are intended in a completely polite, cordial manner - without critique or demanding standards of anyone. They are here to inspire you and bring out the very, very best within you.
Pileus
Gills/Teeth/Pores/False Gills/Etc.
Stipe
Stipe Base
Annulus
Cut In Half
Spore Print
Substrate & Primordia When Present
Habitat
The Dried Collection Awaiting Analysis
Spores Via Microscopy
Cheilocystidia Via Microscopy
Pleurocystidia Via Microscopy
Pileipellis Via Microscopy
Mycelium On Antibiotic Agar In Petri Dishes
By taking multiple excellent photos, the odds increase for proper identification.
You are likely to benefit by having multiple tabs open in your browser during identification, including:
https://mushroomobserver.org/glossary_terms
https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/1417?q=1mvpX
https://images.mushroomobserver.org/Glossary_Vellinga.pdf
https://permies.com/t/55316/a/38472/Mushroom-Identification-Chart.jpg
http://indexfungorum.org/Names/Names.asp
https://www.mycobank.org/page/Simple%20names%20search
https://www.wikipedia.org/
The CYBERLIBER
Electronic Library for Mycology
https://mycologyst.art/mushroom-identification/mushroom-morphology/Recommendations: You should read or re-read Psilocybin Mushrooms Of The World in physical, paperback fashion. You may also benefit by reading Identification Of The Larger Fungi: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/60159/60159-h/60159-h.htm. Another free guide to read is Edible And Poisonous Mushrooms Of Canada located here: https://www.npss.sk.ca/docs/2_pdf/Edible_and_Poisonous_Mushrooms_of_Canada.pdf. However, you should take preference over that text with the following: How To Identify Mushrooms To Genus I: Macroscopic Features. For microscope-related taxonomy you should also have How To Identify Mushrooms To Genus III: Microscopic Features. It will also be good to have a digital, searchable version of this book which you may need to create.
You may live in a locality where a book has already been published that covers most or nearly all of the fungi nearby. You can search via Google or another search engine to see. For example, you can Google "Fungi of Indonesia" or "Indonesia Mushroom Field Guide" and similar search phrases. Books like this are a great but imperfect way to start identifying your local fungi.
You should eventually obtain a digital copy of The Agaricales In Modern Taxonomy, fourth edition, and view it in an app that can search for text. https://www.mediafire.com/file/kwa47ky40n7ox86/Agaricales_in_Modern_Taxonomy_1986.pdf/file?fbclid=IwAR04Sgy_VUHeG3S5EAoxlZ2QKAOzJDVmDeuPE1aCeLvgFgtEvWBQWlKoz_I This book, written by Rolf Singer with the works of other mycologists, may seem intimidating for multiple years or decades to some individuals. Instead of treating the book as something to memorize or something to be intimidated by, may I suggest simply referencing it for searches with key words? Don't let this book intimidate you. Note: The text above is searchable for many pages, but not every single page. A better digital copy is needed urgently.
You should also have www.google.com open. You will be searching, sometimes without luck, for literature constantly. Some of the literature you will search for is not going to be available without purchase - usually with a ridiculous price tag. Some literature will be terrible, to the point of being absurd. Some literature may be in Latin, Italian, Spanish, Chinese, Russian, French, or a different language. In that event, you may be able to successfully use one of the digital translators listed above. Some literature will be out-of-print. Some literature will be good. Very, very rarely the literature will be excellent.
Advancing taxonomists may find interesting details in the following out-of-print book: https://www.nhbs.com/methods-for-working-with-macrofungi-book. A searchable, digital copy of this text would be best. Others are also in need of it badly. The following book, by the same author, may also help some of you who are rapidly advancing: https://www.summerfieldbooks.com/product/cytology-and-plectology-of-the-hymenomycetes-2nd-revised-edition/
No matter what text(s) you personally obtain and prefer, I assure you that most - if not all - mycology literature contains flaws - especially when the literature is contrasted with all known authorities. Some of these flaws are so significant that you will be shocked. You're going to have to figure out a way to not allow that to bother you, and to realize when an author has been incomplete, incorrect, partially correct, ambiguous, or otherwise unhelpful. It happens very, very frequently. The most technical mushroom identifier in the world is probably Else C. Vellinga. Her literature, in my opinion, is far superior to any mycologist who has ever published generalized identification literature.
Let's rapidly discuss some of the approaches you can take with priority for identifying gilled mushrooms. There are a fair number of people who try to identify collections by simple visual comparison to photos on the World Wide Web. This works a lot of the time, but mistakes are also frequently made. Other people just go by memory of what they've already learned, which is also a flawed path for most individuals. Some people also use local mushroom identification books and/or Mushrooms Demystified and California Mushrooms: The Comprehensive Identification Guide. Other people prefer digital "keys," which can be viewed on many sites like www.mushroomexpert.com. Some folks include Wikipedia and Google search results, with preference for the scientific paper or monograph that originally describes a genus with its known species. Some folks also use apps that attempt to automatically identify fungi. Other people strategically photograph mushrooms, and post them where others can help identify them. This includes multiple images that are inclusive of the cap (pileus), stem (stipe), gills (lamellae), a vertically sliced whole specimen, and the substrate (soil, wood chips, etc). Sometimes these observations are accompanied with photographs of microscopic features such as spores, cheilocystidia, pleurocystidia, caulocystidia, and the pileipellis cells. People from around the world can then comment and/or propose a scientific name for these observations. More recently, people are now adding their DNA sequences into observations created on Mushroom Observer and into Genbank. All of these methods are useful, viable methods. However, whole (complete) genome sequencing accompanied by a thorough, personalized Taxonomic Routine or Taxonomic Protocol, are deeper, lasting ambitions with higher results. If you aren't in a position to perform DNA sequencing, you probably are in a position in which you can implement a taxonomic protocol. Here's three protocols, written for a gradual, immersive experience.
Taxonomic Protocol 1: A Basic Method
All people interested in observing fungi should have at least one camera. Good or excellent photos can be taken of all aspects of a collection. This includes, when present, photos of the cap, stem, gills/pores/etc, substrate, and the surrounding environment. An additional high quality photo of the spore print(s) should also be included when possible, preferably on aluminum foil, a microscope glass slide, or typing paper. If possible, you should also have a compound microscope along with an additional camera for photographing spores, cystidia, and additional cells. Without these things, identification cannot be confident in many situations. These are the basics, without going into too much detail.
Taxonomic Protocol 2: More Than Most
Some fungi are secretive, hidden lifeforms that cannot be observed by the un-aided human eye. Even in those fungi which are blatantly visible, hidden attributes are available for observation with greater effort. DNA sequencing can be implemented in these circumstances, and in most circumstances. The official "barcode" region for DNA sequencing for fungi is the ITS (Internal Transcribed Spacer) region. At a minimum, a DNA sequence should cover the full ITS barcode if the material can be sequenced. You can also sequence multiple regions. At a maximum, a DNA sequence can cover all regions of a fungus. This is known as a complete, whole genome sequence. This is the current, "cutting edge" of identification. I see no reason why complete genome sequencing will not remain the champion of identification in the future, along with macroscopic and microscopic details.
You should know something nuanced regarding DNA sequencing. DNA is not something to be intimidated by. It's also not something that should be used as fuel for arrogance. DNA sequencing is a task. It has steps. All that has to be done is to follow the steps. Let's keep it simple.
Taxonomic Protocol 3: No DNA. Collection Is Hydrated And Present
In this circumstance, you have no access to DNA sequencing, but you have the collection. If you already know a general classification name for a fungus (Agaricales, Psathyrellaceae, etc.), but you cannot determine a genus or species name despite going thru every piece of available literature, you can get creative. If you've explored everything above and beyond, here are a few ideas:
☐ Post your observation on both Mushroom Observer and iNaturalist, and see if someone else proposes a name.
☐ Go thru the following list as though it were a checklist, and see if there are more taxonomic characters available in the collection: https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/1417?q=1mxVG
☐ Ask somebody on Mushroom Observer or another identification site via a personal message.
☐ Dry the collection and mail it to a mycologist who specializes in your fungus for further identification.
☐ See if there is a new, previously un-noticed taxonomic character visible in your collection and use it as a potential item for further investigation and inquiry. Use low magnification with a hand loupe, magnifying glass, or reading glasses.
☐ Have a good look at this: https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/1720?q=1mxVG
☐ Return to the locality where you found the collection, and try to observe more collections.
☐ Try time-lapse photography from primordia formation to complete decay to see if any additional characteristics are observable.
❑ The first thing that can be done after photography is an aroma test. Smell the mushroom as it is - without any other effort. Then, very briefly rub a mushroom cap and the stem. Repeat a few times and do another smell. You can also utilize a knife and cut the mushroom, and then immediately perform a smell test. Record these aromas (almond-like, bakery-like, like dark cacao chocolate, apricot-like, like frozen orange juice, "normal/common," cucumber-like, anise-like, garlic-like, coal-tar-like, radish-like, cedar-like, bleach-like, spermatic, shrimp-like, maraschino-cherry-like, acrid, etc.). You can repeat this smell test after completely drying out your mushroom collections. Some species will only reveal profound, distinct aromas once they are dehydrated. Sometimes they also need to be dried and then stored in a ziplock bag for a few days before an aroma is obvious and striking.
❑ The next thing you can do is similar, but it involves your mouth. If you have a stomach/digestive sensitivity, I cannot ethically recommend performing this test. It does not imply that you eat (chew and swallow) any material. You should not perform this test if there is a sign of insects being present, including their larvae or boring holes. Also, avoid doing this with decayed or decomposing fungi. Only do this with flawless specimens.
❑ To conduct the test you'll nibble off a very small piece of mushroom material, and very briefly try to get a flavor description (ie mildly bitter, acrid, gourmet, spicy, none, common, etc.). All of the material is then spit out. Hands and mouth are then thoroughly rinsed. It probably would be a good idea to then gargle for one minute with Listerine, but I doubt anyone does that. Note: I know of one mycologist who has performed taste tests on deadly Galerina and Pholiotina species without any problems. I can't recommend anyone else trying this, though.
Tip: You can use your bare hands (rather than wearing lab gloves) when doing all of this, but wash your hands very thoroughly when an opportunity arises, especially before touching food. If you have a skin sensitivity (medical condition), particularly on the hands, lab gloves are recommendable. You're far more likely to have a problem with mosquitoes while collecting fungi than a bad reaction from holding mushrooms.
Update: There is now one known fungus on Earth that appears to cause skin problems consistently when handled, although more research is required to verify this. Its name is Podostroma cornu-damae (= Trichoderma cornu-damae, Hypocrea cornu-damae). This is a deadly poisonous fungus when eaten, as well. See the Wikipedia article on this name for more.
The following links will take you to the largest amount of unidentified-to-species-level fungi on Mushroom Observer - also known as "The Bin". You may be able to help with some of them, and perhaps many of them. Tip: Avoid going thru these observations if you are new to identification.
Agaricales sensu lato (Currently with 8236 unidentified collections)
Polyporales (Currently with 6345 unidentified collections)
Russula (Currently with 6113 unidentified collections)
Fungi (Currently with 5275 unidentified collections)
Mycena (Currently with 3668 unidentified collections)
Psathyrella (Currently with 3396 unidentified collections)
Agaricus (Currently with 2665 unidentified collections)
Lactarius Currently with 2664 unidentified collections)
Entoloma (Currently with 2613 unidentified collections)
Amanita (Currently with 2729 unidentified collections)
Inocybe sensu lato (Currently with 2301 unidentified collections)
Amanita sect. Vaginatae sensu Zhu L. Yang (Currently with 1943 unidentified collections)
Lichen (Currently with 1821 unidentified collections)
Hygrocybe (Currently with 1698 unidentified collections)
Boletaceae (Currently with 1496 unidentified collections)
Marasmius (Currently with 1390 unidentified collections)
Laccaria (Currently with 1256 unidentified collections)
Hebeloma (Currently with 1041 unidentified collections)
Ganoderma (Currently with 1038 unidentified collections)
Stereum (Currently with 1031 unidentified collections)
You should become familiar with stature types - gradually. Stature types are adjectives for any fungus from any genus possessing a categorical form similar to a genus known for those taxonomic macro-characters. Stature types can also be used to describe a collection that is similar to an already established form not associated with a genus name (secotioid, etc.). See the Mushroom Observer glossary for the following terms: Mycenoid, Collybioid, Omphalinoid, Tricholomatoid, Clitocyboid, Pleurotoid, Panaeoloid, Hygrophoroid, Psilocyboid, Entolomoid, Russuloid, Gymnopiloid, Inocyboid, Secotioid, etc. Used in a sentence, a person might say, "This collection looks panaeoloid, but it does not fit in the genus Panaeolus due to its microscopic characters." Another example involves an intermediate form: "This collection had small, thin mushrooms with a mycenoid to collyboid body form."
See: https://www.mycoguide.com/files/methods/agarics-stature-types.pdf
Note: Carefully observe these names, as some have highly similar spellings, but may have different definitions applied to them. You should consider saving a copy of the linked file, and try to obtain - or create - a more technical version of it.
An inappropriate amount of mycological literature has been produced with very low quality, and very poor use of language - up to the present date of human history. This has left many of us not only frustrated, but incapable of identifying many fungi already described. This could potentially lead to dangerous poisonings. In the event you stumble across a scientific paper that was poorly articulated to the point of not making sense, you may be tempted to email the author(s). Let me offer some remarks regarding this approach. Some mycologists in the year 2022 blatantly seem to ignore each other and the public, unaware of the domino-like effect they are contributing to. I can't blame them completely. In some instances, they are probably in their own mental-world, and they're just trying to control who gets to be part of that world. In other instances, they may believe that they are too busy. In many instances, they probably don't know the answers to the questions they are receiving, and they don't want that revealed. It's hard for people to write cooly, "I wish I knew the answer to that." Other times, they may have been approached verbally in a way that they did not like, or the email account was questionable to them. They may also be dealing with digital spam, digital viruses, spyware, and other offensive approaches by both government employees and individuals among the public. Surely, some mycologists must believe they are receiving questions unworthy of a response, and silence follows this mentality. Regardless of their intent, situation, and interpretation, if you email an author for clarity, you are probably wasting your time. I wouldn't try contacting them. Many mycology papers don't even provide a valid, honest, or functioning email address in the Corresponding Author section of their papers. This is so sad, but it is true.
Notice that not only does Mushroom Observer have species names in the "correct" sense, it also has group names. For example, Mushroom Observer shows Panaeolus cinctulus and Panaeolus cinctulus group. When you see a group name, it was created to organize observations that are nearly identical to a species, but they possess one or more nuances. Some of these groups may eventually lead to the discovery of new-to-science species.
You will also see sp- names like Amanita “sp-T06”. This is a rather new method of naming taxa which still require further study before receiving an official name. When you see these names, they may be accompanied by the text "crypt. temp." which is an abbreviation for temporarily cryptic. That basically means more analysis is required to understand and further classify those taxa.
sensu names also exist. Sensu means "in the sense of" and it can be followed by:
- "lato" (in the widest sense of the description)
- "stricto" (in the strictest sense of the description)
- with an author's name (as this particular author described the taxon)
- by a locality such as CA abbreviated for California (in the sense of the taxa being collected in California)
"auct" (in the sense of subsequent authors)
Other varieties of sensu names also exist.
The nomenclature (formal naming) of fungi is not without rules and oversight. These rules are overseen by the International Code Of Nomenclature For Algae, Fungi, And Plants (ICNafp). While no one should expect you to memorize these rules, try to become familiar with this text and be able to reference it, as well as search within it. This is especially necessary in regard to questionable names that have no substance or meaning. Some names have been illegitimately published. Some names have been invalidly published. Some names have been ineffectively published.
More: https://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/pages/intro/title_page.html
I have found that I learn drastically more about mushrooms whenever I attempt to teach - thru writing - while learning that information myself. One of the things I strongly recommend doing is creating Mushroom Observer Species Lists like this one - with the intention of authentically, properly informing viewers: https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/2094?q=1n0ZK
These lists usually take about 2-3 days roughly to create a firm introductory version, depending on the size of the genus. Species lists are important and very helpful not only to one's self, but also to others. You're writing should be capable of helping others. Here's a template (+) version to save you some time if you'd like to make one: https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/2101
Some levels of scientific classification have properly designated type collections or type species which are representative of those scientific names. Type species exist for every properly published genus, subgenus, section, clade, and some other levels of classification. For example, when a publishing author creates a new genus, a type species (primary representative) is formally designated. The genus Psilocybe has Psilocybe semilanceata as its type species. The process of designating a type species is called typification. Note: There are a variety of different types, including type, lectotype, holotype, clonotype, isotype, neotype, epitype, and other types. It is important to know about type species in some scenarios.
Below: Psilocybe semilanceata
I want to be straight-forward with you regarding one specific challenge in identification: Literature access. As an identifier you could potentially spend over ten thousand euros on books, scientific papers, magazines, posters, and other literature. That's right: Over ten thousand euros. The following link will show you the minimum recommended literature by one student of mycology: https://www.mushroomexpert.com/references.pdf
Instead of spending this offensive amount of cash - which you probably don't have - you could explore an alternative to this. What would be far more clever is to generate all of this literature into a searchable, digital library that friends can share with one another using cryptic Dropbox accounts, Proton Drive accounts, and Google Drive accounts. To do this thoroughly, you might need to befriend a mycologist or group of mycologists who are willing to open their personal libraries to you. Other techniques can also be explored. So far, mycologists and identifiers have not attained to this idea, but some sharing is definitely occurring among friends. I suggest you consider going to the next level while also allowing your friends to go to the next level with you.
Also, someone needs to create a much better, new version of The Agaricales In Modern Taxonomy by the late Mycologist Rolf Singer. It needs a massive visual glossary to address all of the terms he used and failed to properly define. It also needs color photos included with captions to the point that these taxa are easily, unambiguously identifiable via this new text. A different person also needs to publish an honest, accurate pronunciation guide to all fungal names while being euphonic yet strongly articulate. If you are looking for meaningful work, this is "next level" stuff, and these items will be challenging fights to endure.
It will be good to have constant access to a personal library, including a digital library that is searchable. Whatever genera and species you are interested in will require the pursuit of literature. Some of that literature will be divided into hardback, paperback, personally printed out literature, and digital literature. Try to insure all of your digital literature is OCR-enabled (searchable), and that every page of every publication is perfectly viewable. You can obtain free literature from a variety of websites, but www.researchgate.net and www.mykoweb.com/systematics/index.html are good to become familiar with right away. There's many other good resources. You should try to create the most sophisticated, excellent personal digital library possible, while allowing your acquaintances to have the same literature you have.
Tip: You may be tempted to download literature from a popular Russian site or one of its mirrors. These sites may or may not involve giving scientific papers out for free (in the wrong sense of "free"). Right now Russia is doing multiple terrible things internationally, including digital stuff. So are many other nations. I would not mess with any Russian websites until that nation has been dealt with properly. That isn't likely to occur anytime soon, because the conduct of the majority of people on this planet is of a very, very low Nature. I believe it is a more preferable ethic to not steal literature, even when there is an absolute need for that literature to make a confident identification. None of us should be placed in a position where we have to steal literature, or buy literature for an obscene, offensive price tag. If we find ourselves in that position, that doesn't mean we are entitled to stealing literature. We should not be implementing theft or over-competition in the kingdom fungi, even if it's to prevent a poisoning. We should be classy, cool, and kind - to the best extent we can become. We should be reaching for higher virtues, including teamwork, patience, and innovation. We should also be capable of creating distance away from evil by using strength, technique, legitimacy, and resolve. We can, however, share privately, just like we do with our photos, foods, and beverages.
You will definitely stumble upon many terms that are not in any glossary, nor defined properly by the author(s) who used these terms. Other times, the glossary definition(s) will not suffice for your needs. When this happens, it will basically become your responsibility to try and learn those definitions, and add them to at least one glossary - preferably the MO glossary. In the event you need assistance on your quest for a definition, you may wish to use this: https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/1753?q=1n6mY
Tip: Please be very, very confident - with complete clarity - before editing the MO glossary.
You will notice that scientific names for fungi change, and sometimes that can be rather frequent. This can be based upon new DNA sequencing conclusions, names being recognized as not having priority while other names take priority over them, and other reasons. This is something to keep an eye out for, and something that requires updates by the identification communities. You can lookup names on name databases like Index Fungorum and Mycobank, but a higher authority is a relevant scientific publication that indicates a name change.
One of the recent changes to Mushroom Observer was the inclusion of the "Site ID" feature included side-by-side with the proposed name(s). Here's an example: Marasmius androsaceus was deprecated in favor of Gymnopus androsaceus. Mushroom Observer shows observations still labelled with Marasmius androsaceus with the following text: "Observation ######: Marasmius androsaceus (L.) Fr. (Site ID) (Gymnopus androsaceus)". Here is a relevant observation: https://mushroomobserver.org/134590?q=1n7F0
All of us - perhaps - have had bad experiences in life which we wish to delete from memory forever. However, identifying mushrooms requires memory and analysis. People who possess a very strong, lasting memory of fungal species become strong, lasting identifiers. Memory should be instilled into one's self when attempting to make fungal identification a lifelong pursuit. To do this, you will have to determine the requirements to instill this capability within you for life. Repetition, constant subjection to mushrooms, constant subjection to mushroom photography, and constant subjection to mushroom literature appears to be absolutely required - without exception. Memory matters. Without memory, we become poor identifiers with neither confidence nor substance. Someone among us may wish to consider designing an open source, extra large mushroom memory card game to develop and hone their memory matching skills. Check this out: https://www.amazon.com/Stages-Learning-Materials-Picture-Vegetables/dp/B009TEENM4/ref=sr_1_7?crid=1LYMZP54Y7TDF&keywords=memory+game+cards+fungi+mushrooms&qid=1664288526&sprefix=memory+game+cards+fungi+mushrooms%2Caps%2C106&sr=8-7
Caution: While most people who identify fungi seem to enjoy the process, some people may be prone to apply their attention-to-detail beyond fungi. If you do this, you may potentially experience a difficulty or two. I have personally struggled with the amount of details I see in people's faces, and in regard to the physical cleanliness of localities. Please do not apply the same level of judgement or detailed observation to people's appearances or to dogs. You might regret it.
Warning: This subject can get very difficult and very frustrating. When you get frustrated, I believe it's a good idea to take a break, and return when the frustration subsides. We don't need any more grumpy mycologists or grumpy, exasperated mushroomic people. There's a lot of folks in these two categories who are permanently grumpy, and this cluster of people are in need of healing, not more grumpy people around them. If you get frustrated, please find a way to ethically address the frustration so it's not sitting down there in your gut while permeating your mind every hour of every day.
Tip: I recommend slowly creating your own taxonomic (identification) system uniquely tailored to your highest, most excellent imagination. Mushroom Observer also needs its own general digital identification system, in my opinion, and one of you may be the right match for developing it. If you're interested, you'll probably be using Github Desktop and Ruby On Rails. One developer is working on an artificial intelligence visual identification system, but a sophisticated digital key for all fungi would also be of great assistance, and it could stimulate the minds of more people. This could be visually designed in a similar manner as aesthetic audio signal path diagrams created for products like the glossary. The current keys I have reviewed - which may be in the hundreds - did not help me identify nearly all of the fungi I have observed in the past decade. I gave up on using them, with the occasional exception. That's me, though. Other people use keys and it seems to work for them. If you want to try a large key, check out: https://www.mushroomexpert.com/major_groups.html
Note: Skip this if you want to.
I want to be honest and thorough with readers about this topic. I find it so difficult to talk about, that I would really rather refer you to the literature of author Paul Stamets. I cannot possibly sum things up as good as he has. However, I may have an angle here that is potentially helpful and different. Active fungi (those containing Psilocybin and related chemicals) can do different things to different people. They can also do different things to the same person on different occasions. They are not something to toy around with or dis-respect. In fact, some people will accidentally learn to profoundly respect mushrooms because they are so powerful in altering consciousness. Let us remember to respect them and one another.
I firmly believe, whether right or wrong, that humans have very poor approaches to using active fungi. These species are sometimes called Sacred Mushrooms for a reason. If you know you are going to do something sacred, shouldn't you at least prepare well in advance by reading some literature and by designing an atmosphere that will nourish such an event? I think the answer here is definitely a "yes," and I don't mind sounding a tiny bit arrogant to get that point across - correctly.
Not everyone appears to be compatible with these fungi. Some people could easily have bad experiences. If you aren't sure about them, then my advice would be, "Hey, you can skip this activity if you'd like." If you decide to experience them, it would be wise to start with an incredibly low dose. There are people out and about on the internet recommending absurd dosages, and these folks clearly do not have a grasp on being responsible in discussing such a topic.
Be prepared. You've all probably heard the phrase "set and setting." I see no signs of anyone at all paying attention to either set nor setting, with one or two exceptions. I have traveled internationally extensively. I have lived in many places, and visited an absurd amount of localities. I have read a ridiculous amount of literature and commentary. I stand unimpressed with the conduct of the human species, and with the settings provided by humans - worldwide. If you are to embark on a very personal experience with fungi, I caution you with kindness in advance: Work on your intentions and your living quarters in advance. You may find that mushrooms will distinguish you from others, and that what you learn is actually difficult to go through. I say again: Be prepared. If you want to go for even more, then I would also begin working on personal conduct and higher personal standards.
"What are people like who have gone deep with mushrooms?" you might ask. Good question. I still have some research to do on this topic because I obviously haven't met everyone on this planet, nor will I. Here's what I think: I think a lot of men who nature wants to train in a very specific manner - over time - are being partly informed and somewhat molded by these fungi. I'm talking about MMA fighters, military members, athletes, psychologists, scientists, psychiatrists, researchers, software developers, hardware developers, and people who have not yet adapted to the energies harvested across the Earth. I also think there's a strong artistic fungal audience. You can clearly see this in the works of several artists. College and university students appear to be the largest category of people interested in exploring these fungi, and this interest appears to be a very short term interest. There are depressed people interested as well, and anxious people. There are also alcoholics, and there are people using them to deal with end-of-life struggles. There are also people with high strangeness. I've also noticed an unfortunate amount of mean people who have embraced dishonesty with high confidence. There also appears to be a fair number of entertainers and comedians who have experienced them. There's also plenty of people who are super grumpy, and their activities are disturbing. There are alienated outcasts as well, mis-treated by society. There are also selfish people who hoard and never contribute to just causes. Finally, there are people who seem to be influenced sexually by fungi. There's a spectrum of individuals who appear to have gone deep with active mushrooms, just as a spectrum exists for those who will never take them. Almost no one on this planet, relatively speaking against an estimated eight billion humans, has actually gone deep with fungi. This is self-evident. It is more than painfully obvious.
A strong majority of the people on this planet have not ingested active fungi. Many don't even know such a thing exists, or they don't care that such a thing exists. Most people just care about plain food, effortless pleasure, simplistic shelter, and to not have to think for themselves with any significance. That's my take and my experience as a traveler. The cities of the Earth are practically covered in dog dung and urine - which is obviously something that is not conducive to celebrating fungi, hunting fungi, or cultivating an aesthetic, healthy city. Many cities are also filthy otherwise, and on several levels. One can literally feel the filth of some cities and the forthcoming tragedies that inevitably await those who live in them. There is clearly almost no visionary or mushroom-driven architecture or living quarters, with very, very few exceptions. I see practically zero mycogardening, zero mycoforestry plans, and practically zero cultivation in comparison to other dominant activities. This feeds into the truly debased mentality and shallow, self-sabotaging drive of humans. Humans have achieved false standards for euphony, honesty, privacy, respect, health, the aesthetic, the innocent, cleanliness, kindness, and the creative. The adults - generally speaking - are literally playing bad cops and bad robbers as adults, only with guns, batons, carbon-polluting cars that have to be removed from the streets, and other items - accompanied by a pathetic sense of adventure. They're also playing we can burn it down and act innocent while calling themselves good people worthy of high esteem. They're doing this with their intentions, with their daily activities, with their sexual activities, with their criminal activities, and it's happening globally - regardless of gender, age, religion, lack of religion, education background, work background, current job title, etc. Things are quite bleak. They are beyond bleak, and they are what I see, feel, hear, experience, and know every day. The human species definitely appears to be pushing deeper and deeper into enjoyment from seeing the pain or distress of others, war, disease, generalized conflict, natural disasters, civil unrest, police violence, inflated esteem, false security, greed, inflated dis-honesty, a lack of formality, financial corruption, war crimes, profound arrogance, false leadership, false "good guys and gals," and what some call the phenomenon. This leads us to another point...
Having A Difficult Experience With Them
If all else fails, and you are lost, disoriented, weak, damaged, etc., you can choose to use this as a repetitive thought: Let's be cool. Let's be kind. Let's keep it clean, and let's keep it strong. You can also choose to retreat and consider implementing what are now known as trip killers, but I can't go beyond saying more than this. More details can be found here: https://www.youtube.com/c/PsychedSubstanceChannel/search?query=trip%20killerAdditionally, you can try the 4-7-8 breathing technique, which really can work. Have a quick look: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YRPh_GaiL8s Note: You should not practice this technique while driving or operating machinery. Practice should occur well before a Psilocybin experience occurs.
Active fungi can provoke amazing and beautiful experiences. For some, they allow an ushering in of life's most important experience that coincides with feeling reborn. These fungi also appear to instigate the following on the opposite spectrum: Hallucinations that are highly undesirable, physical phenomena that cannot be explained, non-physical phenomena, temporary paralysis, seizure-like fits, amplified frustration or anxiety, the need to sing and play music, a loss of control over personal consciousness, extreme sensitivity to artworks and sounds, the need to maintain personal happiness at peak levels, psychic phenomena that is not desirable, forthcoming visionary dreams, forthcoming responsibility for one's consciousness rather than "auto-pilot" consciousness, intense fear, religious fervor, the inability to speak, generalized paranoia towards all people, glossolalia and native language utterance, vomiting, fainting, unfounded fearlessness, inflated personal esteem, dilated pupils for several hours, the "runs," confusion, the ability to see people's inner and outer energies which may not fit into anyone else's familiarity, a desire to experience ceremony, true and false premonitions accompanied by a sense of profound responsibility, feeling a deep void (something vital is obviously missing), susceptibility to believing a powerful myth, immersion into a mental world that is strictly black & white with symbols rapidly being seen, a forthcoming need to understand occult teachings which is likely to be futile, loss of coordination, body dysmorphia, emergence into a state of awe and fascination that no one else can relate to, inaccurate depth perception, vulnerability, interaction with a different intelligence, and a feeling that one has truly departed mainstream consciousness permanently. Lastly, and perhaps of higher concern, these fungi may induce a bifurcation in personal consciousness among an unknown percentage of people. All of these things appear to be possibilities within the Psilocybin experience, and you have a right to know this in advance. Other things can also occur, including serious insights that may take years to process.
I write these things to be direct with you, not to elbow you in any one direction. I prefer that this text provides a nuanced but informed sense for these fungi, rather than giving opportunity to over-fantasizing. If you want to skip this activity, skip it. It's your choice. I neither support nor condemn the use of these fungi. They would be so useful if only honesty, kindness, awareness, caution, fairness, coolness, preparation, ethics, art, depth, and higher intentions were a priority for the human species and for other intelligences.
Honest Recommendation: https://www.alexgrey.com/art/anatomical/be-a-good-human-being
https://wiki.counterculturelabs.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JoltDnGYn3g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fodgMQ5fNQI
https://wiki.counterculturelabs.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing#Supplies_Needed
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=qyaNM6lJmGo
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=p9-FOMZjVg8
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=OMU_vpOticw
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=YttdAPU31V0
https://docs.google.com/document/u/0/d/13B9OSE_ar_vWWZnHZegr2FROnMak78qHZxEZXc1E9jk/mobilebasic
https://images.mushroomobserver.org/microscopy.pdf
https://images.mushroomobserver.org/Fungal%20Microscopy.pdf
(Fast Forward To 12:30) https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=XXVEyq4nmaY
https://www.agilent.com/cs/library/support/documents/a05296.pdf
https://chemrxiv.org/engage/api-gateway/chemrxiv/assets/orp/resource/item/617755bc913a74cab06a8a2d/original/rapid-quantification-of-psilocybin-with-reversed-phase-hplc-and-single-wavelength-detection.pdf
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=kJVXAALRfRo
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=glQzKG0E1Gg
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=kDmn7tgB9GI
(See Page 15) https://fungi.com/products/the-mushroom-cultivator
https://fungi.com/products/growing-gourmet-and-medicinal-mushrooms
https://mycokeys.pensoft.net/article/56691/
https://mushroomobserver.org/glossary_terms/1120
Note: Any Corrections Or Updates, Eloquently Advised, Are Welcome! Cheers!
------- Original Message -------
On Sunday, April 16th, 2023 at 13:02, intersolar@protonmail.com Intersolar@protonmail.com wrote:
Formal Notification: This article and all of its contents are intended for adults aged 18 and over. If you are not of age, you should NOT be reading this.
Digital Translators In Order Of Rank:
https://www.deepl.com/en/translator#en/es/ ⬱
https://itranslate.com/webapp ⬱
https://www.bing.com/translator ⬱
https://translate.google.com/?sl=en&tl=ko&op=translate ⬱
▥ Notation: This text was originally designed on a site called Mushroom Observer. For those of you who use Mushroom Observer (MO), it is potentially best viewed using a tablet with a liquid crystal display and touch zoom. While I cannot recommend any technologies or brands due to lacking human ethics and intelligence worldwide, I will relay this: The iPads with hand touch zoom seem better than any other item I've tried for viewing mushrooms. When viewing images for up-close details on MO, try using the Show Original Image feature to get the largest, best photo. Once this large version of the image appears, you may then single click on it to expand it further. Then you can use operating system zoom along with browser zoom and see things that other identifiers may not see. You may wish to utilize browser zoom now to view this list and other aspects of MO. I constantly adjust my zoom based on what aspect of MO I browse. Lastly, but not any less important, you'll want the MO glossary open in a separate browser tab while viewing this.
It is an impressively absurd trait of the human species aggregate that it refuses to teach mycology correctly in middle schools (junior highs), in high schools, in colleges, in universities, in private schools, and while at home. It is equally, impressively absurd that some humans literally stomp on mushrooms in front of children, and tell them all mushrooms are poisonous, and that fungi should never be considered for any purpose - whatsoever. The human species is no longer mingling with a permanent state of profound ignorance, disgusting misconduct, ill-will, whole-hearted mis-prioritization of human behaviors, and malevolence. These human traits are well known, well observed, and well recorded - with reason. Should you or anyone else be bringing these traits into other solar systems?
If the human species wants to start developing mentally and behaviorally to the point of what should be called excellence, it can begin by allowing the high art of mycology to flourish in dignified, respectable institutions worldwide - accompanied by honesty and priority. This isn't year zero. Let's act our archaeological age and embrace self-development, while also embracing mycology in organizations with a completely different approach.
The scientific study of fungi should be taught with equal priority as given to the teaching of the English language, high cleanliness, peak etiquette, ethical options, and priority of human behavior/conduct. Mycology should start with mushroom identification using taxonomic characters and classification. Sterile technique(s) should then be taught third, while still including taxonomy with field studies involving classification. Mushroom identification is the instant path to sparking natural interest in mycology, while allowing students of all ages to broadly explore subdivisions of knowledge. Identifying fungi can sometimes make learning into something enjoyable and fascinating.
DNA sequencing of the ITS barcode should be taught next. Then the in-field portion of cloning fungi should be taught. While people learn these skills they must still perform field studies, taxonomy, and sterile technique(s). Detailed microscopy of gilled fungi should then be co-implemented while utilizing high definition images in slide show presentations. Fungal modes of reproduction should follow. The study of DNA regions should co-occur beyond that of the ITS barcode. Whole, complete genome sequencing should follow. Then aspects of fungal forestry (the management & creation of healthy forests with fungi) should be taught. Then climate change. Then over-population. Then population density trauma. Then the relationships between humans and the ever-changing forests of the Earth, including fungi. Then extinctions of fungi and plants. Fungal Forestry should start with an introduction to a light-emitting species in the dark hours of night. Fungal Forestry should then be followed by mushroom growing (cultivation) while actually growing and actually having fun. Mycolandscaping should then be taught with a hands-on approach. All of the items listed above are probably attainable and fairly practical. These items will serve as the foundation for more mycological studies. To not teach mycology in this manner is to fail to teach mycology properly, in my view. Teachers should spend less time rambling and more time allowing people to do their work in a healthy environment matched with excellent mentoring.
Students and faculty involved in mycology should be in a better "living realm" while in class - to the most excellent extent they are able to obtain together. Classrooms and labs can sparingly or greatly implement black lights, with artwork intended for black light environments. Edison gold lights can also be added, along with additional nuanced lighting options. Exceptional selections of music and sound effects played on an excellent sound system can also be included during intermissions, and at other times. Any music or sound effects played should be "conductive" within the environment - while generating focus, finesse, strength, and cohesion with the tasks required for that day. Each and every day will begin by properly, fully cleaning the lab and classroom with a sense of immediacy, excellence, and self-expectation. This should take five minutes exactly, followed by a timed, one minute, ceremonial washing of hands. The flowhoods will switch on - also in simple ceremony with reverence - and work shall commence.
Although you may find the next statement humorous, I take an honest tone in suggesting that students should also be encouraged to wear exotic, Jedi-like clothing for this coursework - or at least wear this creation of clothing to and from class. Remember, your environment, fashion, and intentions are able to modify and uplift consciousness. Your diet and decision-making for each and every day can also modify and uplift consciousness. The students should never be made to feel small. They should be spoken to like future Jedi.
Those who are ignoring mycology and/or botany in the 21st century may be doing so towards their own mental decline. Most of the people on this planet are struggling to show enough intelligence to implement the appropriate level of etiquette so that everyone feels okay during their time on Earth. That should be alarming to you. That should make you want to look for solutions. The Earth is changing and you will all soon see it for yourselves.
Do you want to talk about Space, Dimensions, and War - as your planet rests on a trajectory towards a sixth extinction event or something worse? May I make an alternative, difficult proposition that is intended for everyone? First, learn cleanliness, sophisticated language with flexibility, etiquette (politeness), kindness, honesty, grace, diversity, formality, reaching for higher virtues, and mycology. Then, maybe (perhaps) we can all start to have a conversation about Space, Dimensions, and potentially different lifeforms elsewhere endued with emotions, talents, knowledge, flaws, and wisdom. The human species is walking around with false pride - dangerously false pride - and false intelligence, accompanied by layer upon layer of misconduct. Many things can be done to address these layers. Mycology, taught properly and effectively, is one technique of practical implementation that can have far-reaching effects on the entirety of the human species aggregate, if given a miraculous, unexpected window-of-opportunity.
The following text is both an introduction to fungi, and more importantly, a text to help you identify mushrooms and other fungi - with honest, effective paths provided. As taxonomy becomes more sophisticated with the inclusion of whole, complete genome sequencing, along with better literature and imagery, accuracy in identification is likely to increase. Accuracy can also be increased through the eloquent, free-sharing of scientific and non-scientific literature. New technologies may also emerge to make things easier and more accurate.
Notes On Literature: More mycologists and identifiers should be sharing free literature with one another, rather than competing with one another. You should consider helping each other grow as mycologists or as identifiers, while helping the public become more knowledgeable - by interacting properly with them. Those of you who are mycologists need to hear/interpret something else: You are expected to be of a higher state of mind and a higher state of heart than people who are not involved in the scientific study of fungi. So are those of you who are involved in botany at the scientific level. You are all expected to exhibit profound patience with students and the public in general - no matter how much non-sense you have already endured. What you do this year and in the following years is important. You have accessed knowledge and forces of nature like very few people have. You are also compatible with specific types of knowledge and the ability to deal with forces of nature in unique ways. This proceeds with responsibilities that others may attempt to shrug off. I suggest you take five minutes to ask yourself if you have embraced those natural responsibilities and helped people who wanted to learn new things, or if you abandoned them in silence. If you are a mycologist and you have not properly taken questions from the public, or you have refused to share some literature with your colleagues, can you re-consider your approach?
Final Opening Remarks: All serious students of fungi need to hear something that may seem like a jab to the nose. If you are well on your way to becoming a mycologist or an identifier, please consider becoming a literally perfect writer and a perfect illustrator (or photographer).
Fungi are identified properly using taxonomy, nomenclature, and classification (taxonomic rank), along with other tools, to eventually apply a scientific name to each lifeform. A binomial (two part) name is made to distinguish and identify fungi at the species level. Example: Panaeolus cyanoannulatus. The first part of the name is the genus name, which is capitalized (example = Gymnopilus). The second part is the unique species name within that genus, and it is un-capitalized. We do not use "common names" (example = Laughing Gym) or nicknames in formal taxonomy. Common names are okay to teach young people though. They may need common names in order to eventually start using scientific names.
Here's an example of the classification of one interesting species called Psilocybe zapotecorum.
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Hymenogastraceae
Genus: Psilocybe
Section: Psilocybe sect. Zapotecorum
Species: Psilocybe zapotecorumBelow: Psilocybe zapotecorum from Jalisco, Mexico
Probably everyone who has experienced enthrallment by unidentified fungi has collected mushrooms and made at least one inquiry among identifiers. Identification is a category of mycology that often requires teamwork, respectful collaboration, personal development, and literature. There are a few exceptionally talented people who can identify a very high amount of diverse fungi, but these folks are very rare. Most people seem to grow in knowledge by starting to identify species in their favorite genera (genuses). For example, most people who study the psychedelic (mind-manifesting) genera seem to immediately gravitate to the genus Psilocybe first, then Panaeolus, then Gymnopilus, then Pluteus. As identifiers become aware of additional psychedelic genera, they explore into more dangerous territory with Pholiotina, Inocybe, Conocybe, Galerina, Mycena, and other genera. I recommend studying any genus and species you want to, and developing your skills every year thru repetition, going deeper than in past years, and by teaching or assisting other identifiers. Identification of lifeforms in the kingdom fungi, generally speaking, requires patience, focus, and grace. You may find that you have a place in this kingdom, and that this kingdom is quite capable of emerging as a lifeforce to you and others. This may include the desire to generate far superior literature than what is currently available.
Let's look at a complete fungal name. In this instance, a species name:
Inocybe haemacta (Berk. & Cooke) Sacc., Syll. fung. (Abellini) 5: 763 (1887)
This is the "correct" format for names on MO, although other styles and formats are used by various publications and online literature. The first part of this info is the scientific name. The second part [ (Berk. & Cooke) Sacc. ] contains the author names. The third part is the publication name and date in which the species was formally made known. If I want to read about a species, I can Google the publication info, or I can try similar searches. The way you search for literature makes a difference. Sometimes you have to fight to find it.
Here is the literature for Inocybe haemacta: https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/25509#page/773/mode/1up
Also note that Inocybe haemacta is placed into a section. Namely, Inocybe sect. Lactiferae. This section contains bluing/greening Psilocybin species such as Inocybe corydalina, Inocybe tricolor, Inocybe glaucescens, and additional species. You can begin reading about these species in a 2019 paper if you wish: http://inocybaceae.org/PDF/Matheny_Kudzma_NewInocybe_EasternNA.2019.pdf Note: Not all species in this section are Psilocybin species.
Below: Inocybe haemacta
Notice the bluing on the stems, but also take note of the substrate (soil) still attached to the bases of the stems. These are important taxonomic characters that can easily be learned and built upon.
Well, this is a complicated question which I will answer with great simpliciity. A species is a basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of a unique, distinguished lifeform. A species shares likeness is physical appearance, behavior, reproduction, and in DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid). There are over two dozen different species concepts developed by humans, and you can gradually immerse yourself into these definitions by searching the internet for terms like "species concepts" and "the species problem." Perhaps the most important thing to simply remember here is that species are unique, and we as identifiers (taxonomists) organize mushrooms not only by order and by genus, but also at the species level whenever possible. This distinguishes one fungus from the others using taxonomy. Taxonomy is the science of naming, describing, and classifying all living, endangered, extinct, and fossilized organisms, including all known fungi.
You are probably quite familiar with the terms genus and species, and perhaps all of the levels listed above regarding classification. Whether you're new to this classification system or very familiar with it, let me make one point here that is important: Sections (abbreviated in the singular form as sect.). Have a look at this: Psilocybe sect. Zapotecorum. You should always try your best to identify a fungus not only to genus, but also to section - at a minimum. This isn't always easy, and sometimes it's impossible. I recommend to let that be your minimum goal with identification when possible. Note that many species do not belong to a section as of 2022, and many collections on Mushroom Observer have not even been identified beyond Order. Mushroom Observer currently has a large quantity of unidentified fungi, and quite frankly, help is needed.
You should also be able to make IDs to Family level classification, with equal effort. If you know you found a mushroom resembling a Galerina, but it's not a Galerina, you can propose a name for the current family inclusive of Galerina known as Hymenogastraceae. Then look at which genera belong to that family, and begin an investigation into each genus.
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Hymenogastraceae
⬂
Subtaxa (Genera within the family Hymenogastraceae):
Alnicola Kühner
Chromocyphella De Toni & Levi
Flammula (Fr.) P. Kumm.
Galerina Earle
Hebeloma (Fr.) P. Kumm.
Hymenogaster Vittad.
Naucoria (Fr.) P. Kumm.
Phaeocollybia R. Heim
Psathyloma E. Horak ex Soop, J.A. Cooper & Dima
Psilocybe (Fr.) Kumm.
Wakefieldia Corner & Hawker
Weraroa SingerNotation1: The genus names above are followed by author(s) name(s). It is common, but not constant, for authors to implement their names using an abbreviation or initials.
Notation2: In cases where a species is no longer in its original genus name (and placed into a new genus), both the authority for the original genus name followed by that for the new name are given. The original author is placed in parentheses.
Taxonomic rank is used in mycology to place taxa into a systematically arranged hierarchy. Formal and less-than-formal ranks have been used or may be used, including Superdomain, Domain, Subdomain, Superkingdom, Kingdom, Subkingdom, Phylum, Division, Subphylum, Subdivision, Class, Subclass, Superfamily, Epifamily, Family, Subfamily, Infrafamily, Order, Suborder, Infraorder, Tribe, Subtribe, Infratribe, Genus, Subgenus, Clade, Subclade, Supersection, Section, Subsection, Species, Superspecies, Semispecies, Subspecies, Variety, Subvariety, Forma Specialis, Group, Species Complex, Species Aggregate, Series, Subseries, Form, Stirps, Subform, Strain, Substrain, Cryptic Species, Crypt. Temp., Incertae Sedis, Uncertain, Unknown, et cetera.
You should also become quite familiar with the term Subgenus. When mycologists are still in need of time to study multiple taxa, and they believe they are dealing with a genus that could be new, yet these taxa are highly similar to an established genus, they may temporarily classify a number of species into a subgenus (plural form = subgenera). Here's an example: Ganoderma subg. Elfvingia. This subgenus will have taxa that one day are classified into a new genus, placed into new sections, or be published otherwise. The purpose of telling you this stuff is so that you are aware you may need to identify collections to subgenus level, without the ability to be more specific. Many genera have subgenera.
Below: A collection currently in Ganoderma subg. Elfvingia. This subgenus is intended for non-laccate (non-shiny surface) species where the palisade (an arrangement of elongated, perpendicular cells in close proximity to each other) of caveman-club-shaped cells is absent in the surface of the basidiomes (the fruitbodies with spore-producing structures). The representative (type) species of this subgenus is Ganoderma applanatum.
Classification:
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Polyporales
Family: Ganodermataceae
Genus: Ganoderma
Subgenus: Ganoderma subg. Elfvingia
All formally, properly published names of fungi include a written description of the taxonomic characters that the author(s) was/were able to record. Let's look at a description of the species known as Psilocybe zapotecorum. The description initially describes the macroscopic characters (those features seen without high magnification), followed by microscopic characters. A few other details are also included with some descriptions, including aroma, taste, and reactions to certain chemicals. Usually a few Latin terms are used in descriptions. We'll get into why Latin is included further down.
Below: Psilocybe zapotecorum
Psilocybe zapotecorum R. Heim, Revue Mycol., Paris 22(1): 77 (1957)
Pileus (20-)40-70(-110) mm diam., polymorphic, conic to convex, convex-plane or campanulate, regular or irregular, sometimes papillate, or subumbilicate, hygrophanous, yellowish pale to chocolate-brown, orangish-brown or cinnamon-brown, smooth, sublubricous, sometimes with white floccose scales from the veil at the margin. Lamellae adnexed to sinuate, whitish-brown or pale reddish-brown to dark violaceous, edges whitish. Stipe (70-)100-180(-200) x (5-)10-15(-20) mm, tapering upward, solid to hollow, fibrous, whitish to concolorous with pileus, covered by short or large, floccose, white appressed scales toward the base, frequently in multiannulate arrangement. Veil developed in young stages, as white, thin subarachnoid membrane, which sometimes forms an ephemeral subannulus. Context white and fleshy in pileus, fibrous, whitish to pale brownish or blackish in stipe. Pseudorhiza well developed, as a long, thick cordon or as thick, pseudofleshy, piriform, white mass.Odor and taste farinaceous.Spore print dark brown-violaceous.Basidiospores (5-)6-7(-8) x (3-)3.5-4.5(-5) x 3-4 µm, narrowly subellipsoid, oblong ellipsoid or obscurely subrhomboid in face-view, subellipsoid in side-view, thin-walled, wall 0.5-0.8 µm thick, pale to dark yellowish-brown, with a truncate germ pore, and a short and acute apiculus. Basidia (13-)(15-)(20-)22-29 x (4-)(5-) 6-7 µm, 4-spored, clavate or subvesiculose-subcylindric, with a middle constriction, hyaline. Pleurocystidia (12-)15-20(-24)(-28) x (3-)4-6(-8)(-10)(-12) µm, common, but difficult to find, hyaline, bottle shaped, subfusiform, subcylindric or subventricose, with a wide or narrow base, mucronate or with a short to very long neck up to 28 µm long., sometimes sublageniform, irregularly branched. Pseudocystidia (18-)(21-)25-33 (-40)(-56) x (6-)8-10(-16)(-17.5) µm, common, grayish, polymorphous, subfusiform, subventricose, subglobose or sublageniform,branched or lobulated, sometimes submoniliform, with a narrow or wide base,which is born in the trama hymenphoral. Cheilocystidia (14-)20-30(-40) x (4-)5-7(-8)(-10)(-20) µm, generally polymorphous, sublageniform or lageniform, regular or irregularly branched or lobulate, subcylindric or globose to subglobose, with a short or long neck, with a wide or narrow base, hyaline. Pileipellis subgelatinous, thin to thick, up to 15(-20) µm thick, hyphae 1.5-5 µm wide, thin-walled, hyaline to yellowish. Pileocystidia16-40 × 6-8(-10) µm, ventricose-subcylindric, submoniliform or subglobose, some strangled. Pileus trama with hyphae (1.5-)3-8 µm wide, some globose, up to 30 µm wide, thin-walled, hyaline to brownish, not incrusted. Subhymenium subcellular, elements 2-5 µm wide, hyaline and incrusted with yellowish-brown pigment. Trama hymenophoral regular or subregular, hyphae 2-20(-26) µm wide, thin- or thick–walled, some of them inflated, hyaline, occasionally incrusted with yellowish-brown pigment. Oleiferous hyphae 4-7 µm wide, infrequent, grayish or yellowish-gray. Caulocystidia (8-)11-25(-30)(-40) x(3.5-)7-8(-10) µm, polymorphous, sublageniform, ventricose-rostrate, subglobose or pyramidal, sometimes regular or irregularly branched, hyaline, solitary or in small groups. Clamp connections present.Right away, you should note that there are tons of words you may not be perfectly familiar with. You'll need a glossary to deal with that problem. Many mycologists wrote their descriptions with only other mycologists in mind, or possibly just their own self in mind. A painful percentage of mycologists have also written very poor descriptions, with the result that no mycologist and no person can understand what they wrote in its entirety - or at all. Many, if not most, descriptions need to be emended (edited and greatly improved). The above description is fine. It works. Could it be emended and made more effective? It could.
Latin. The Latin language was once required for descriptions or, alternatively, diagnoses. Latin is no longer required for descriptions and/or diagnoses, and these can now be either in English or Latin, but not in any other language. Regardless, it is highly common for authors to still use a few Latin words, probably to give their text a little classiness or exotic flair. I happen to like the use of a few Latin words. If you don't like it, you don't have to use it, but you'll still have to tolerate its existence from other authors.
The description above may make you want to take a u-turn and leave. Don't let it bother you. I recommend keeping focus on the words we can understand with full clarity, and not getting thrown off by any unintuitive English. Modern mycologists need to improve their language skills above that of their predecessors, while meeting the expectations of a newly enrolled high school student trying to understand their descriptions. Everyone involved in mycological literature should strive to use accurate English without ambiguity.
Notation1: Some taxa do not possess a description, but they may have a diagnosis. Some descriptions will be provided along with a diagnosis. A diagnosis is a statement of that which in the opinion of its author distinguishes a taxon from other taxa. Let's quickly take a look at a diagnosis:
**Pseudosperma amabile** Bandini, B. Oertel & Wehr, Czech Mycol. 72(2): 232 (2020)**D i a g n o s i s:** _Pseudosperma amabile_ is a stout species with a brown to dark brown pileus colour, greyish velipellis and smooth to rim(ul)ose or innately fibrillose pileus surface. The smooth spores measure 8.5–12.2 μm (av. 10.0 μm) × 5.3–7.4 μm (av. 6.4 μm), and the thin-walled cheilocystidia are often (sub)capitate, measuring 32–70 μm (av. 42 μm) × 9–23 μm (av. 14 μm). It grows on calcareous soil with frondose trees or conifers. *In these combined characteristics it differs from other species of the genus Pseudosperma.* No closely genetically related species are known.Notation2: Other taxa may have neither a description nor a diagnosis, and yet somehow, these names require study. In the event this happens, you will be out exploring in what I call the true, level one Abyss Department Of Mycology. The abyss goes further down, and we will not be getting into that stuff here. These descriptionless and diagnosisless names need to be addressed, and I don't have the answer yet for how to deal them properly. Just take note that this is going to happen, probably sooner than you expect, and it's going to be frustrating. Try not to get frustrated.
Some publications will include distinguishing characters without providing a formal area showing a Diagnosis. These characters are sometimes called distinctive characters, distinguishing features, distinctive features, distinguishing characteristics, or similar synonymous phrases. Sometimes this info is subtly imbedded into the text and will not stand out. You'll want to keep an eye out for this content, and perhaps even perform a search for "character" within the texts you browse during identification. These distinguishing characters can be applied to any level of classification, including genus. Here's one set of distinguishing characteristics to look at as an example:
The Genus _Lentinula_Pegler (1975) placed _Lentinus edodes_ and _Lentinus boryanus_ into the genus Lentinula by virtue of the non-decurrent lamellae (soon becoming free) and presence of inflated, sclerified (generative) hyphae. Other distinguishing characteristics of the genus are: 1) pileipellis fibrillose to squamose; 2) stipe central to excentric, firm; and 3) veil evanescent.Taken & modified from https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/Sydowia_58_0191-0289.pdf
Below: Lentinula edodes (The world famous "Shiitake" mushroom)
Classification:
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Omphalotaceae
Genus: Lentinula
Species: Lentinula edodes
Some of you may not need this information, but I think it's appropriate to include. Some people on this planet see things that others cannot - or choose not - to see. I have noticed that a percentage of people teaching at the university level believe fungi cannot be identified using photos. This is relatively false - depending on the photos, the visual system used to view those photos, and potentially other factors. Your eyes are likely to be capable of immediately observing traits (taxonomic characters) in one photograph to rule out certain fungi, and rule in certain fungi. Photos can definitely be used frequently for identification, but always yield to high caution and suspended conclusion when ingestion is being considered.
Here's what I look at immediately after opening an observation: First it's usually the substrate (tree base, wood chips, soil, etc). Second, whatever single feature stands out to me personally. This can be serrated cellular formations (teeth) at the cap perimeter (margin), mottled (spotted) gills, a bulbous (rounded & enlarged) stem base, pileus color(s), gill color(s), color changes upon handling, etc. With time and endurance, you will likely recognize features that specifically stand out to you as an identifier. This takes tenacity. It is these features (taxonomic characters) that subtly guide identifiers, especially those characters which stand out rather boldly. Your knowledge of taxonomic characters will grow over the years, and it may take you over a decade to become comfortable with many of them. You need excellent literature to assist you with this, including glossary definitions that are definitively understood without any room for ambiguity. Let's go thru a sample observation together, and I'll point out what I see and use language intended for everyone. First, if you haven't already adjusted your browser zoom to expand this list as large as possible, I'll ask you to do that now.
Below: Psilocybe yungensis
In this instance we only have four photos in our sample observation. Despite only having four photos, we can blatantly see taxonomic characters that rule out taxa and rule in taxa. Notice in the third photo that decaying wood is observable as the substrate. We can see this is a stipitate (stem-inclusive), lamellate (gill-inclusive) mushroom. It doesn't have teeth or pores, and it's fleshy rather than chondroid (hard and tough like cartilage). The caps have nearly nipple-like extensions (papillas). This specific papilla form can be called an acute papilla.The caps also have lines on them called striations. A little green appears to be present on the general cap surfaces, but not on the stems or gills. In general, the cap color appears to be caramel-dominant. The gills are relatively purple enough to call them purple. The gills are quite close to each other. The stems range in color dominance from a brown to an almost brown-burgundy, with some white. Notice the close-up photo of one of the stems. You should notice some white zigzag-like patterns, or differentiated white cellular areas. Different mycologists describe this feature in different ways, which is why we have so many synonyms to learn in taxonomy. I personally prefer calling them seismic coda marks. Notice also that there are subtle vertical lines on the stipe. In the fourth image we can see the spore print is purple enough to call it purple.
Let's pull up the following scientific paper titled The Genus Psilocybe and view page 150: https://mykoweb.com/systematics/literature/The%20Genus%20Psilocybe.pdf. This is a formal description of Psilocybe yungensis. We can use this description to compare the sample observation with it. We can also click on the Mushroom Observer name for Psilocybe yungensis and compare photographs if other observations have already been added.
In terms of applying a taxonomic/scientific name, let's start far away from approaching the genus Psilocybe. Let's start with the order Agaricales. Let's inspect the name Agaricales for clarity. On Mushroom Observer we use two different names for Agaricales.
- Agaricales sensu lato = gilled fungi. (sensu lato = "in the broad sense")
- Agaricales Underw. = fungi residing inside of a discrete phylogenetic grouping which may or may not have gills. (Notation: Phylogenetic = The genetic study of the evolutionary history and relationships among taxa using DNA). To view Lucien Marcus Underwood's text visit: https://ia600909.us.archive.org/28/items/mouldsmildewsmus00unde/mouldsmildewsmus00unde.pdf
Note: The number of instances in which Agaricales Underw. is the best possible name for an observation is very, very low. Agaricales sensu lato is our frequent starting point for gilled fungi when seeking a more specific ID than Fungi. Other orders exist, too, and it is good to be mindful of this.
If we are unable to conclude that this collection belongs in a specific genus or given a species name, we can propose Agaricales senus lato safely. The green on this collection combined with purple gills, a purple spore print, and a wood substrate slightly suggests the genus Psilocybe and other genera. The caramel-dominant cap with the papilla are further convincing facts that this collection belongs in Psilocybe. We can further be convinced in this instance because the original identifier is a true expert in the taxonomy of the genus Psilocybe. This is just an example, and I realize we could get more technical and sophisticated here.
Not only is the collection in Psilocybe, it's also in Psilocybe sect. Cordisporae. For more knowledge regarding this genus, please see https://mykoweb.com/systematics/literature/The%20Genus%20Psilocybe.pdf and https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254725842_Supplement_to_the_monograph_of_the_genus_Psilocybe
You will eventually have opportunities to identify fungi that cannot be placed into an order such as Agaricales. Sometimes observations of white mycelium growing on wood without fruits may be best suited for the phylum Basidiomycota. Other times you may see "sac fungi" which you can't identify with much specificity, so you may propose the phylum Ascomycota. You may also see bread molds that you can't get too specific with, in which case the phylum Zygomycota can be proposed. Other times you may be dealing with Chytrids, and the phylum Chytridiomycota may be proposed. There are other phyla (divisions) to be aware of, too, and they are: Cryptomycota, Zoopagomycota, and Mucoromycota. There are a couple of other questionable phyla names, too, but their status is not currently valid.
If you've already proposed a phylum name, and you know you're right, the next logical step can be an investigation of the class names within that phylum. Let's say there's a collection currently named Basidiomycota. What class names are under Basidiomycota? We can see this by selecting the hyperlink for Basidiomycota and then selecting Show Subtaxa. Let's have a look at the subtaxa of Basidiomycota:
Agaricomycetes
Agaricomycetidae
Atractiellomycetes
Basidiobolomycetes
Dacrymycetes
Exobasidiomycetes
Gasteromycetes
Polyporales sensu lato
Pucciniomycotina
Pucciniomycetes
Tremellomycetes
Tritirachiomycetes
Ustilaginomycetes
ZygodesmusIf you are a new identifier, you shouldn't concern yourself too much with these names, but you will want to gradually become familiar with them. Wikipedia can help you understand these names better.
Mushroom collectors really ought to consider spore prints when posting their observations. The spore print is an easy way to assist in the identification process. A spore print is a gathering of many, many spores ejected from the gills, pores, or other spore-bearing surface. Although spores are individually invisible to the un-aided, un-magnified eye, when hundreds of thousands or millions of spores appear in a spore print, they leave a color which is taxonomically helpful. Spore prints can also be used to grow mycelium, and eventually mushrooms, too.
Note: Spore deposits can often be seen on the pileus surfaces in collections of specimens found growing very closely together. Sometimes spore deposit colors can also be seen on solitary specimen stipes, or on the substrate(s) and sorrounding surface areas.
Here's how to make a spore print:
✘ Before going hunting, clean a tupperware container with excellence and wash your hands. Place the tupperware container in a clean, new paper bag for extra cleanliness. Go straight to the site of the mushrooms and swiftly collect them into the tupperware container. Return to your living quarters in haste.
✘ Immediately after returning from hunting to your living quarters, wash your hands thoroughly with effort.
✘ Clean a table surface or shelf surface intended for this task.
✘ Tear off a piece of new aluminum foil. Its size should be slightly larger than the cap you are about to use.
✘ Using a clean knife, scissors, or your hands, swiftly remove the stipe of a freshly harvested mushroom, severing it from the pileus (cap).
✘ Place the cap onto the aluminum foil with the gills or pores facing the foil (face down).
✘ Get a freshly cleaned and dried, clear drinking glass that can fit nicely over and around the cap - and place it there. Rubbing alcohol can be used to help cleanse the glass beforehand if necessary.
✘ Wait roughly 24 hours and do not remove the glass - not even for a moment.
✘ After 24 hours approximately you should now have a good spore print.
✘ After removing the drinking glass, immediately place the spore printed foil into a new ziplock bag. Seal it thoroughly, confidently. This can then be mailed out to the appropriate mycologist for further study using Fedex, UPS, DHL, or a fast shipper of your choice. You can write a note on the ziplock bag using a permanent marker for the mycologist so he/she knows what they are dealing with in truth. Most people just include the Mushroom Observer observation number. Some prefer including a collection card.Below: A purple spore print of Psilocybe stuntzii taken directly on a microscope glass slide
An abundance of terms describing different surfaces of pilei and stipes exists. Some terms have been ambiguously defined. Some have never been properly defined, and some terms are quite helpful in describing a collection. Some have never been properly illustrated, and a few terms have been illustrated correctly as of 2022. More artists and advanced photographers are needed to generate excellent photographs that accurately show and limit each taxonomic character perfectly.
To Be Developed.
The following category list is a somewhat overlapping, informal, divided index of fungal groupings. It is designed to give you an introduction to popular fungi without being too long and detailed. This is a very rapid introduction which will require your amplified focus and gradual immersion. These informal categories are based upon dominant taxonomic characters or noteworthy groupings. Dominant taxonomic characters can vary among some genera, some specimens of the same species, and even the same collection of the same species. For this reason, some genera names listed below are in multiple categories. Tip: It is a better approach to know several species very well, rather than falsely knowing all of these genera.
Stipitate-lamellate mushrooms are simply those fungi which exhibit both a stem and gills.
Know Some Of The Most Frequent Genera: Agaricus, Agrocybe, Alnicola, Amanita, Armillaria, Arrhenia, Bolbitius, Calocybe, Candolleomyces, Chlorophyllum, Chromosera, Chroogomphus, Clitocybe, Clitocybula, Clitopilus, Collybiopsis, Conocybe, Coprinellus, Coprinopsis, Coprinus, Cortinarius, Crepidotis, Crinipellis, Cuphophyllus, Cyptotrama, Cystoderma, Cystolepiota, Deconica, Entoloma, Flammula, Galerina, Gerronema, Gliophorus, Gomphidius, Gymnopus, Gymnopilus, Hebeloma, Hygrocybe, Hygrophoropsis, Hygrophorus, Hypholoma, Infundibulicybe, Inocybe, Inosperma, Laccaria, Lacrymaria, Lactarius, Lactocollybia, Lentinus, Lepiota, Lepista, Leratiomyces, Leucoagaricus, Leucocoprinus, Leucopaxillus, Limacella, Macrocybe, Macrolepiota, Marasmiellus, Marasmius, Melanoleuca, Mycena, Naucoria, Omphalotus, Oudemansiella, Panaeolus, Parasola, Phaeocollybia, Pholiota, Pholiotina, Pleurotus, Pluteus, Protostropharia, Psathyrella, Pseudobaeospora, Psilocybe, Russula, Strobilurus, Stropharia, Tetrapyrgos, Tricholoma, Tricholomopsis, Tubaria, Volvariella, Xeromphalina
Know Some Of The Less Frequent Genera: Britzelmayria, Calonarius, Cantharocybe, Clitocella, Coniolepiota, Connopus, Cyclocybe, Cystodermella, Dermoloma, Entocybe, Floccularia, Heimiomyces, Heinemannomyces, Hemimycena, Hemipholiota, Hemistropharia, Hymenagaricus, Hypsizygus, Meottomyces, Mycopan, Omphalina, Panaeolopsis, Phaeonematoloma, Phlegmacium, Phloeomana, Pleuroflammula, Psathyloma, Porpolomopsis, Pseudoclitocybe, Pseudoomphalina, Rhizomarasmius, Rhodocollybia, Rhodocybe, Rickenella, Roridomyces, Simocybe, Tapinella, Trichocybe, Tricholosporum, Tulosesus, Xerula,
Preface: Note that many fungi lamellae start out with sterile white gills that develop color changes as the specimens mature. In some instances there will also be spotted (mottled) gills in which some areas of sterility may exist with other areas developing color changes as a result of basidia and spore maturation.
Pink And/Or Salmon Dominantly Colored Lamellae: Agaricus, Entoloma, Pluteus, Rugosomyces,
Black Dominant And/Or Mottled Black/White Lamellae: Coprinus, Lacrymaria, Panaeolus,
Brown Dominant Lamellae: Agrocybe, Conocybe, Cyclocybe, Galerina, Hebeloma, Panaeolus, Pholiota, Psathyrella, Psilocybe, Tubaria,
Purple Dominant Lamellae: Cortinarius, Hypholoma, Laccaria, Lepista, Psilocybe, Stropharia, Tricholosporum,
Yellow Dominant Lamellae: Bolbitius, Gymnopilus, Humidicutis, Leucocoprinus, Phylloporus, Russula,
Mature White Dominant Lamellae: Amanita, Gomphidius, Hemimycena, Leucoagaricus, Pleurotus,
Orange Dominant Lamellae: Galerina, Gymnopilus, Humudicutis, Omphalotus, Tubaria,
Green Dominant Lamellae: Chlorophyllum, Gliophorus,
Gray Dominant Lamellae: Psathyrella,
Red Dominant Lamellae: Hygrocybe,
Other:
To Be Developed.
Reduced Stipitate, Lamellate Fungi: This informal group comprises pseudo-stipitate gilled fungi that have a very short (reduced) stipe to nearly not having a stipe.
Know the genera Campanella, Cheimonophyllum, Mycena, Panellus, Pleurotus, Sarcomyxa, Scytinotus,
To Be Developed.
Non-Stipitate, Gilled Fungi: Fungi without a stipe or pseudostipe while exhibiting lamellae.
Know the genera Campanella, Hohenbuehelia, Lentinellus, Pseudomerulius, Schizophyllum, Tapinella,
To Be Developed.
Lichens are multi-species lifeforms consisting of a symbiotic relationship between a fungus (the mycobiont) and a photosynthetic partner (the photobiont or phycobiont), which is usually a green alga or a cyanobacterium.
Byssoid Lichens: Lichens with a wispy growth form, and having the appearance of teased wool. Know the genera Coenogonium, Cryptophaea, Sagenidiopsis, Tasmania,
Crustose Lichens: Lichens in crust-form that are so tightly attached to the rocks, trees, sidewalks, or soils that they can’t be removed without damaging the substrate. Know the genera Icmadophila,
Filamentose Lichens: Lichens with a stringy appearance. Know the genera _
Foliose Lichens: The most common form of lichens that grow on the trunks of trees or on rocks in the shady woods. They’re usually gray-green and form basically circular colonies. Know the genera Peltigera,
Fruticose Lichens: Lichens appearing like tiny, leafless branches. Know the genera Cladina,
eprose Lichens: Lichens with a powdery appearance. Know the genera _
Squamulose Lichens: Lichens that are scaly in appearance. Know the genera _
Structureless Lichens: Lichens that do not have a recognizable thallus structure, including gelatinous lichens where the cyanobacteria produce a polysaccharide that absorbs and retains water. Know the genera _
To Be Developed.
More:
http://www.lias.net/
https://lichenportal.org/cnalh/imagelib/index.php?target=genus
https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/2061
https://blogs.ed.ac.uk/lichenwalk/wp-content/uploads/sites/4888/2021/08/ID_GUIDE.pdf
Amaurodermatoid: Resembling or identical to the genus Amauroderma.
Know the genera Amauroderma, Auriscalpium, Cristataspora, Foraminispora, Ganoderma, Haddowia, Humphreya, and Sanguinoderma.
To Be Developed.
https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/2061
Stipitate-Toothed: Those fungi exhibiting a stipe and teeth.
Know the genera Auriscalpium, Bankera, Beenakia, Climacodon, Hydnellum, Mycorrhaphium, Phellodon, Pseudohydnum _, _Sarcodon, Steccherinum, .
To Be Developed.
Resupinate-Toothed Fungi: Lacking any stipe and exhibiting teeth rather than gills or pores. They also lay flat on the substrate, and typically do not bend up and away from the substrate, such as those fungi known as effused-reflexed.
Know the genera Hydnochaete, Hyphodontia, Irpex, Odonticium, Dentipellis, Dentocorticium, Hydnocristella, Mycoacia, Phlebia, Radulodon, Radulomyces, Steccherinum, and Sarcodontia.
To Be Developed.
Tentaculiform: Exhibiting sea anemone-like tentacles or similar tentacle-like extensions.
Know the genera Aseroe, Deflexula, Dentipellicula, Gymnosporangium, Hericium, Mucronella, Phaeopterula, Pterula, Pterulicium, Pycnoporellus, Radulomyces,
To Be Developed.
Desert & Sand Fungi: Those fungi which can literally develop in sandy terrains, sometimes including desert terrain.
Know the genera Agaricus, Amanita, Aspicilia, Astraeus, Battarrea, Chlamydopus _, _Chlorophyllum, Coprinus, Gymnoascus, Laccaria, Montagnea, Phallus, Phellorinia, Pisolithus, Podaxis, Psathyrella, Sabuloglossum, Secotium, Terfezia, Tirmania, and Tulostoma.
Note: The best way to search for these names on Google may be to to use one genus name plus the word "sand" in quotes.
To Be Developed.
Spathulate & Earth Tongue Fungi: Somewhat spoon-shaped, with some species almost resembling caveman club fungi or coral fungi.
Know the genera Cudonia, Geoglossum, Glutinoglossum, Leotia, Loweomyces, Microglossum, Neolecta, Sabuloglossum, Spathularia, Thuemenidium, and Trichoglossum.
To Be Developed.
Exudate, Guttulate, & Droplet Fungi: Fungi which generally exhibit roundish drops of water and/or other chemicals in various colors which form typically upon the pileus and/or stipe surface. Sometimes these drops will also be seen on the gills or pores, and even on cultured myceliums.
Know the genera Abortiporus, Arcyria, Calcipostia, Coprinopsis, Exsudoporus, Fomitiporia, Fomitopsis, Hemiaustroboletus, Hericium, Hortiboletus, Hydnellum, Hyphodontia, Hypomyces, Inonotus, Ischnoderma, Leucoagaricus, Leucocoprinus, Mycena, Nectria, Niveoporofomes, Oligoporus, Panaeolus, Poria, Postia, Pseudoinonotus, Pubctularia, Rhodofomes, Ryvardenia, Tetrapyrgos, Xylaria,
To Be Developed.
Non-Stipitate Tooth Fungi That Are Not Resupinate: Fungi without a stipe or pseudostipe which exhibit teeth, but they do not lay flat on the substrate as a thin layer of fungi.
Know the genera Auriscalpium, Cerrena, Hericium, Spongipellis, Steccherinum
To Be Developed.
Tile (Imbricate) Fungi: Growing bracket-like in multiple tiers.
Know the genera Auricularia, Bjerkandera, Byssomerulius, Climacodon, Fomes, Flaviporus_, Fuscoporia, Ganoderma, Globifomes, Grifola, Inonotus, Ischnoderma, Phaeolus, Phellodon, Podoserpula, Polyporus, Postia, Protomerulius, Pseudoinonotus, Pseudomerulius, Rigidoporus, Ryvardenia, Sarcodon, Spongipellis, Stereum, Thelephora, Trametes, Trametopsis, Trichaptum, Tyromyces, and Vanderbylia.
To Be Developed.
Cerebriform Fungi: Appearing brain-like or somewhat similar to a human brain.
Know the genera Calvatia, Ductifera, Gyromitra, Podoscypha, Sparassis, Tremella,
To Be Developed.
Sparassis-Like (Sometimes Some Of These Taxa Are Called "Cauliflower-Like") Fungi: Definition Pending.
Know the genera Cotylidia, Grifola, Irpex, Podoscypha, Sebacina, Sparassis,
To Be Developed.
Anastomosing: Lamellae exhbit irregular transverse connections. Know the genera Campanella, Marasmius,
Furcate: Forked lamellae. Know the genera _
Intervenose: Veins run in between the lamellae. Know the genera Mycena, Tetrapyrgos, Xeromphalina,
Transvenose: Gills have veins on their surfaces. Know the genera Entoloma, Lactifluus, Phylloporus,
To Be Developed.
Falsely Gilled & Cantharellus Gilled, Stipitate Fungi: These are fungi which exhibit ridges rather than true gills, although they can easily trick people into looking like gilled fungi.
Know the genera Gomphus, Craterellus, Cantharellus, Polyozellus, and Turbinellus.
To Be Developed.
Non-Hard Stipitate-Poroid Fungi: Fungi with a stipe and pores that are not chondroid (not hard and tough like cartilage).
Know the genera Afroboletus, Amoenoboletus, Aureoboletus, Austroboletus, Baorangia, Binderoboletus, Boletellus, Boletinellus, Boletus, Bothia, Buchwaldoboletus, Butyriboletus, Cacaoporus, Caloboletus, Cerioporus, Chalciporus, Coltricia, Corneroboletus, Cotylidia, Cristaspora, Crocinoboletus, Cupreoboletus, Cyanoboletus, Exsudoporus, Filoboletus, Fistulinella, Fuscoboletinus, Fuscoporia, Gastroboletus, Gyrodon, Gyroporus, Harrya, Hemiaustroboletus, Hemileccinum, Hortiboletus, Imleria, Inflatostereum, Jahnoporus, Laccocephalum, Lanmaoa, Leccinum, Lentinus, Neoalbatrellus, Neoboletus, Paragyrodon, Phaeolus, Polyporus, Porphyrellus, Pseudoboletus, Psiloboletinus, Pulchroboletus, Pulveroboletus, Scutiger, Strobilomyces, Suillellus, Suillus, Sutorius, Tengioboletus, Tylopilus, Veloporphyrellus, Xanthoconium, Xerocomus, and Xerocomellus.
Bluing Genera: Boletus, Boletellus, Gyroporus, Neoboletus, Suillus, Xerocomus,
Red-Pored Genera: Boletus, Chalciporus,
White-Pored & Off-White Genera: Leccinum, Tylopilus, Xanthoconium
Yellow Pore Surface Genera: Heimioporus, Suillus, Veloboletus, Xanthoconium,
Reticulate Genera: Boletus,
Favolus-Like Genera: Favolaschia, Favolus, Lentinus, Neofavolus, Panellus, Polyporus,
To Be Developed.
Hard Stipitate-Poroid Fungi: Mushrooms which have a stem and pores under the pileus, but they are chondroid (hard and tough like cartilage). In several instances, some of these fungi may not be quite chondroid, but they will generally be tougher and less soft than Boletus edulis.
Know the genera Amauroderma, Cristataspora, Ganoderma, Picipes, Polyporous, Royoporus, Trichaptum,
To Be Developed.
Image Pending
Reduced Stipitate, Poroid Fungi That Are Not Crust Or Effused-Reflexed Fungi
Know the genera Favolaschia, Polyporus, Tapinella,
To Be Developed.
Image Pending
Non-Stipitate, Poroid Fungi That Are Not Crust Fungi
Know the genera Abortiporus, Austeria, Bjerkandera, Cerrena, Cyanosporus, Fomes, Fomitopsis, Fulvifomes, Ganoderma, Globifomes, Heterobasidion, Inflatostereum, Inocutis, Laricifomes, Niveoporofomes, Postia, Pycnoporellus, Pyrofomes, Rhodofomes, Ryvardenia, Stereum, Trametes, Tyromyces,
To Be Developed.
Cup & Pseudo-Cup Fungi
Know the genera Ascocoryne, Bulgaria, Chaetothiersia, Chromocyphella, Dumontinia, Geopyxis, Guepiniopsis, Humaria, Otidea, Lachnella, Lachnellula, Lachnum, Mollisia, Pachyella, Peziza, Phillipsia, Phlebia, Phlogiotis, Plectania, Plicaria, Sarcoscypha, Scutellinia, Trichopeziza, Urnula,
See the observations here: https://mushroomobserver.org/glossary_terms/12
Stipitate-Cup & Pseudo-Stipitate Fungi:
Non-Stipitate Cup Fungi:
To Be Developed.
Truffles, False Truffles, Sclerotia, & Pseudosclerotia
Truffles: Know the genera Choiromyces, Geopora, Hydnocystis, Hypholoma, Leucangium, Panaeolus, Paurocotylis, Peziza, Stephensia, Terfezia, Tirmania, Tuber,
False Truffles: Know the genera Alpova, Gautireia,
Sclerotia: Know the genera Boletus, Ceriporia, Cheilymenia, Claviceps, Entoloma, Fibulorhizoctonia, Polyporus, Psilocybe, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium, Trechispora,
Pseudosclerotia: Know the genera Grifola, Morchella,
To Be Developed.
Volvate Fungi: Mushrooms that exhibit a volva at the stipe base.
Know the genera Amanita, Battarrea, Clathrus, Limacella, Macrolepoiota, Phallus, Saproamanita, Volvopluteus, Volvariella, and other genera.
To Be Developed.
Basal Disc Fungi: Mushrooms exhibiting a ring at the very base of the stem, or more than one ring.
Know the genera Coprinus, Coprinopsis, Hemimycena, Mycena, .
To Be Developed.
Bioluminescent Fungi: Fungi which emit light or otherwise glow in the darkness
Know the genera Amparoina, Armillaria, Favolachia, Gerronema, Mycena, Neonothopanus, Omphalotus, Panellus, Prunulus, and Roridomyces.
To Be Developed.
Morels, Gyromitras, Helvellas, & Similars
Know the genera Balsamia, Barssia, Costantinella, Discina, Disciotis, Fischerula, Gymnohydnotrya, Gyromitra, Helvella, Hydnotrya, Imaia, Kalapuya, Leucangium, Morchella, Pseudorhizina, Underwoodia, Verpa, and Wynnella.
To Be Developed.
Agaricicolous Fungi: Fungi that grow on other fungi
Know the genera Asterophora, Cladobotryum, Dactylium, Entoloma, Hypomyces, Spinellus, Syzygites, Syzygospora, and Tolypocladium.
More: https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/75
To Be Developed.
Caveman Club Fungi
Know the genera Clavariadelphus, Urnula, Xylaria,
To Be Developed.
Conifer Cone Fungi: Fungi which are often seen on pine cones and similar cones from trees
Know the genera Auriscalpium, Baeospora, Clitocybe, Collybiopsis, Diplodia, Gymnopilus, Gymnopus, Lachnum, Lecanora, Leccinum, Lepiota, Lycoperdon, Marasmius, Mycena, Nidula, Platismatia, Psilocybe, Sphaeropsis, Strobilurus, Suillus, and Xeromphalina.
To Be Developed.
Pseudorhiza Fungi: Mushrooms which form a root-like extension at the base of a mushroom stem, oftentimes capable of growing roughly twelve inches deep into the substrate, but more commonly about two to six inches deep.
Know the genera Baeospora, Caulorhiza, Mycena, Oudemansiella, Phaeocollybia, Psilocybe, Rhodocollybia, Sarcodon, Termitomyces,
To Be Developed.
Coral & Pseudoclavarioid Fungi: Resembling a coral reef or an oceanic coral species.
Know the genera Alloclavaria, Artomyces, Calocera, Clavaria, Clavariachaete, , Clavulina, Clavulinopsis, Lachnocladium, Lentaria, Pterula, Ramaria, Ramariopsis, Scytinopogon, Sebacina, Tremellodendron, Sulzbacheromyces, Tremellodendron, Tremellodendropsis.
To Be Developed.
Coprophilus Fungi: Fungi growing on any form of dung.
Know the genera Bolbitius, Chaetomium, Conocybe, Coprinopsis, Coprinus, Crucibulum, Cyathus, Deconica, Panaeolus, Protostropharia, and Psilocybe.
To Be Developed.
Musicolous: Fungi which grow on – or with – mosses.
Know the genera Albatrellus, Alnicola, Arrhenia, Cantharellula, Chromelosporiopsis, Collybiopsis, Cortinarius, Cotylidia, Craterellus, Deconica, Entocybe, Galerina, Gerronema, Hygrophoropsis, Lactarius, Lichenomphalia, Multiclavula, Mycena, Naucoria, Omphalina, Pachyella, Psilocybe, Retiboletus, Rickenella, Rimbachia, Suillus,
To Be Developed.
Puffballs, Stipitate Puffballs, Earthstars, & Similars:
Know the genera Abstoma, Acutocapillitium, Apioperdon _, _Arachnion _, _Arachniopsis, Astraeus, Bovista, Bovistella, Bryoperdon, Calbovista, Calostoma, Calvatia, Calvatiopsis, Disciseda, Gastropila, Geastrum, Glyptoderma, Holocotylon, Japonogaster, Langermannia, Lycoperdon, Lycoperdopsis, Morganella, Mycenastrum, Rhopalogaster, Tulostoma, and Vascellum.
Note: Also see the category Nuanced Ball & Similar Fungi.
To Be Developed.
Nuanced Ball & Similar Fungi:
Know the genera Bovista, Calvatia, Calbovista, Cyttaria, Phellorinia, Pisolithus, Scleroderma,
To Be Developed.
Entomopathogenic Fungi: Parasitic fungi growing on/in insects killing or seriously disabling them.
Know the genera Akanthomyces, Beauveria, Cordyceps, Metacordyceps, Ophiocordyceps, Pandora, Isaria, Hirsutella, Metarhizium, and Nomuraea.
To Be Developed.
Laterally Or Eccentrically Stipitate Fungi:
Know the genera Amauroderma, Bresadolia, Cerioporus, Coltricia, Dacryopinax, Oligoporus, Panellus, Polyporus, Lentinus, Rhodocybe, and Trichocybe.
To Be Developed.
Pleurotoid Fungi: Fungi resembling or somewhat resembling the genus Pleurotus
Know the genera Cheimonophyllum, Crepidotus, Hohenbuehelia, Lentinellus, Ossicaulis, Panellus, Panus, Pleurocybella, Pleurotus, Phyllotopsis, Resupinatus, Sarcomyxa, Tapinella, and Tectella.
To Be Developed.
Ink Fungi: Those which exhibit fruit bodies which, upon maturity, – and under specific environmental conditions – can dissolve into a black, ink-like substance.
Know the genera Tulosesus, Narcissea, Coprinellus, Coprinus, Parasola, and Coprinopsis. Also know the genera Podaxis and Montagnea.
To Be Developed.
Antrodioid Fungi:
Know the genera Antrodia, Ceriporia, Ceriporiopsis, Emmia, Fibroporia, Inonotus, Irpex, Neoantrodia, Oxyporus, Perenniporia, Poria, and Yuchengia.
More: https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/980
To Be Developed.
Hypogeous Fungi: Occurring or living below the surface of the ground.
Know the genera Alpova, Arcangeliella, Astraeus, Brauniellula, Chamonixia, Chondrogaster, Choiromyces, Cortinarius, Destuntzia, Elasmomyces, Endogone, Endoptychum, Galeropsis, Gastroboletus, Gastrocybe, Gautieria, Geopora, Gomphogaster, Gymnoglossum, Gymnomyces, Gyrophragmium, Hydnangium, Hymenogaster, Hypholoma, Hysterangium, Leucangium, Leucogaster, Leucophleps, Longula, Macowanites, Martellia, Melanogaster, Montagnea, Mycolevis, Nivatogastrium, Octavianina, Peziza, Phallogaster, Phellorina, Podaxis, Protogautieria, Pyrenogaster, Radiigera, Richoniella, Rhizopogon, Rhopalogaster, Royoungia, Scleroderma, Sclerogaster, Sedecula, Setchelliogaster, Terfezia, Thaxterogaster, Tirmania, Truncocolumella, Tuber, Weraroa, and Zelleromyces.
More: https://www.natruffling.org/basidkey.pdf
To Be Developed.
Gelatin “Candy”/Jelly, Pseudo-Transparent, Translucent, & Semi-Translucent Fungi:
Gelatin Candy/Jelly: Know the classes Tremellales, Dacrymycetales, Auriculariales, and Sebacinales without intimidation. Specifically know the genera Ascocoryne, Calocera, Dacrymyces, Dacryopinax, Exidia, Guepiniopsis, Heterotextus, Myxarium, Tremella, ,
Pseudo-Transparent/Semitransparent: Know the genera Delicatula, Gliophorus, Pseudohydnum, Roridomyces,
Translucent: Fungi allowing light, but not detailed shapes, to pass through their fruits. Know the genera Campanella, Mucronella, Mycena, Roridomyces,
Semi-Translucent: Know the genera Ductifera,
To Be Developed.
Mucoid, Viscid, & Subviscid Fungi:
Know the genera Aureoboletus, Bolbitius, Chroogomphus, Codinaeella, Cortinarius, Gliophorus, Gomphidius, Hygrophorus, Mycena, Panaeolus, Psilocybe, Tylopilus,
To Be Developed.
Stinkhorn Fungi:
Know the genera Anthurus, Aseroe, Blumenavia, Clathrus, Colus, Dictyophora, Itajahya, Ileodictyon, Laternea, Ligiella, Lysurus, Mutinus, Phallus, Protubera, Pseudocolus, Simblum, and Staheliomyces.
To Be Developed.
Tubular Fungi: This category is NOT intended for stipitate-poroid fungi such as those seen in the boletoid genera. It is for fungi that have a tubular-dominant overall appearance.
Know the genera Camillea, Craterellus, Henningsomyces.
To Be Developed.
Lactifer & Milk-Bearing Fungi:
Know the genera Lactarius, Lactifluus, Multifurca, Suillus, and Zelleromyces.
To Be Developed.
Image Pending
Bread Mold Fungi:
Know the genera Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Monascus, Penicillium, Rhizopus, and _.
To Be Developed.
Inversely Gilled Fungi:
Know the genera Campanella, Cheimonophyllum, Clitopilus, Crepidotus, Daedalea, Hohenbuehelia, Lentinellus, Marasmiellus, Phyllotopsis, Pleurocybella, Pleurotellus, Pseudomerulius, Resupinatus, Sarcoscypha, Schizophyllum, and Tectella.
To Be Developed.
Crop & Leaf “Disease” Fungi:
Crop Fungi: Know the genera Anthracnose, Aphanomyces, Aspergillus, Botrytis, Ceratocystis, Claviceps, Colletotrichum, Cunninghamella, Didymella, Erysiphe, Fusarium Gibberella, Gymnosporangium, Helicobasidium, Leveillula, Microsphaera, Mycosphaerella, Phytophthora, Plasmodiophora, Podosphaera, Puccinia, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, Septoria, Stemphylium, Synchytrium, Uncinula, Ustilago,
Leaf, Stem & Needle Fungi: Know the genera Albugo, Alternaria, Botrytis, Cercospora, Drepanopeziza, Erysiphe, Golovinomyces, Leptosphaeria, Puccinia, Phomopsis, Sawadaea, Scleroderris, Sclerotinia, Septoria,
Leaf Spot Fungi: Know the genera Alternaria, Anthracnose, Ascochyta, Cercospora, Corynespora, Cylindrocladium, Cylindrosporium, Didymella, Entyloma, Fabraea, Marssonina, Phyllosticta, Pleospora, Ramularia, and Septoria.
Flower Fungi:
Grass & Cereal/Grain Fungi: Blumeria,
Bark, Tree Root, Branch & Xylem Fungi: Know the genera Gymnosporangium, Lachnellula, Lepteutypa, Leptosphaeria, Neonectria, Ophiognomonia, Rhizoctonia, Thyronectria,
To Be Developed.
Grassland Fungi: Mushrooms commonly seen in lawns and fields of grass.
Know the genera Agaricus, Amanita, Armillaria, Calvatia, Chlorophyllum, Collybiopsis, Conocybe, Coprinus, Deconica, Inocybe, Marasmius, Panaeolus, Parasola, Psilocybe,
To Be Developed.
Maze-Gill Fungi:
Know the genera Brunneoporus, Cerrena, Daedelea, Daedaleopsis, Earliella, Fibroporia, Porodaedalea, Trametopsis, and Trametes.
To Be Developed.
Bird’s Nest Fungi:
Know the genera Crucibulum, Cyathus, Mycocalia, Nidula, Nidularia and Sphaerobolus.
To Be Developed.
Trumpet’s Bell & Similar Fungi: Mushrooms shaped like the end-part of a trumpet.
Know the genera Cantharellus, Cladonia, Clavicorona, Craterellus, Gomphus, Pleruotus, Polyozellus, Turbinellus, Xeromphalina.
To Be Developed.
Crust Fungi: This phrase may need to be re-worded.
Know the genera Corticium, Kretzschmaria _, _Lyomyces, Mycoacia, Peniophora, Protomerulius, Sarcoporia, Sertulicium, Subulicystidium, Terana, Tomentella, Trechispora, Tubulicrinis, Vararia, Xenasma, Xenasmatella, Xylodon.
To Be Developed.
Secotioid & Pseudosecotioid Fungi: Secotioid fungi are an intermediate growth form between mushroom-like hymenomycetes and closed bag-shaped gasteromycetes, where an evolutionary process of gasteromycetation has started but not run to completion. Secotioid fungi may or may not have opening caps, but in any case they lack the vertical geotropic orientation of the hymenophore needed to allow the spores to be dispersed by wind, and the basidiospores are not forcibly discharged. Sub-secotioid fungi are nearly identical to the secotioid fungi, but they are slightly further away from being secotioid, and the pileus has opened more-so.
Know the genera Agaricus, Conocybe, Cortinarius, Endoptychum, Galeropsis, Gastroboletus, Gymnogaster, Gyrophragmium, Lentinus, Montagnea, Notholepiota, Panaeolopsis, Panaeolus, Pholiota, Podaxis, Psilocybe, and Secotium. Note: Most species in these genera are NOT secotioid or pseudosecotioid.
To Be Developed.
Effused-Reflexed Fungi: A portion of the fruiting body is closely appressed to the substrate except for the margin which flares out to form a pileus or turn back (becoming reflexed) at the margin to form an incurved, pileus-like feature.
Know the genera Antrodia, Brunneoporus, Byssomerulius, Coriolus, Datronia, Earliella, Fomitopsis, Fulvifomes, Heterobasidion, Irpex, Ischnoderma, Laetiporus, Nigrofomes, Perenniporia, Phlebia, Postia, Punctularia, Steccherinum, Trichaptum, Tropicoporus, Tyromyces, Xylobolus,
To Be Developed.
Ciliate & Eyelash Fungi: Fungi exhibiting eyelash-like protrusions radially on the pileus margin or apex margin.
Know the genera Hymenotorrendiella, Lachnella, Lachnum, Lentinus, Scutellinia, Torrendiella,
To Be Developed.
Gourmet & Medicinal Fungi: Gourmet fungi suitable for restaurants and in-home dining, along with medicinal fungi reportedly medically beneficial. This informal, ever-growing category is NOT inclusive of psychedelic fungi, despite the apparent desire of others. Continued, advanced research is not only needed for the fungi listed below and their chemical components, people involved in this aspect of science are well underway in doing so. More funding and studies appear to be necessary - along with addressing just how medicinal some of these fungi listed below truly are. I doubt most doctors would recommend using these fungi. However, some of these fungi used alongside some pharmaceutical chemicals may enhance the body's ability to heal. This list is more for your research and knowledge, rather than a strict list demonstrating factual healing powers.
Gourmet Fungi: Know the genera Agaricus, Auricularia, Boletus, Calvatia, Cantharellus, Flammulina, Grifola, Lentinula, Lyophyllum, Morchella, Pleurotus, Tricholoma, and Tuber.
Medicinal Fungi: Know the genera Cordyceps, Fomitopsis, Ganoderma, Hericium, Inonotus, Phellinus, Pleurotus, Polyporus, Poria, Trametes, Tremella,
To Be Developed.
Poisonous & Lethal Fungi: Fungi that must be distinguished from other fungi when consumption or taxonomy are considered. Note that the psychedelic genera are NOT specifically implemented here, despite the apparent desire of some folks who believe they should be included. Certainly, I can understand the desire to do this, but it is not appropriate for educational purposes.
Poisonous Fungi: Know the genera Agaricus, Amanita, Ampulloclitocybe, Chlorophyllum, Clitocybe, Coprinopsis, Cortinarius, Cudonia, Echinoderma, Entoloma, Galerina, Gyromitra, Hapalopilus, Hebeloma, Helvella, Hypholoma, Imperator, Inocybe, Lactarius, Mycena, Neonothopanus, Omphalotus, Paralepistopsis, Pholiotina, Podostroma, Ramaria, Rubroboletus, Russula, Sarcosphaera, Trojia, Turbinellus,
Potentially Lethal Fungi: Know the genera Amanita, Conocybe, Cortinarius, Galerina, Inocybe, Pholiotina, Podostroma,
Currently Questionable: Know the genera _
To Be Developed.
Deeply Psychedelic Fungi: Fungi containing one or more of the following chemicals. Psilocybin, Psilocin, Cyanescin (Baeocystin), Nor-Cyanescin (Nor-Baeocystin), Aeruginascin, MAOIs, and related chemicals. This informal category of fungi has vital notes you need to know. First, this list does not include Amanita species. Those are not known to have ever induced an experience that is anywhere near parallel to the genera listed below. Second, and more importantly, some species in the genera listed below are not only poisonous, they can literally be lethal - and in a very horrible manner. If you study these genera, make sure you know which taxa you could be dealing with, and yield to strong caution and deep taxonomic assurance. Note also that these genera have not been studied to the point of finalizing their taxonomic positions, nor in their complete genomic sequences, nor in their complete chemical analysis. More people are needed internationally to study these fungi using state-of-the-art gear and methods - along with ethics. Lastly, more genera are likely to reveal the presence of psychedelic compounds identical to, or similar to, those mentioned below.
Know the genera Conocybe, Galerina, Galeropsis, Gymnopilus, Inocybe, Inosperma, Mycena, Panaeolopsis, Panaeolus, Pholiotina, Pluteus, and Psilocybe.
To Be Developed.
When you first endeavor to photograph fungi, you probably will need some tips for making observations. Some folks obtain poor photographs taken in excess haste, and others take professional level photographs that not only take lots of time in the field, they also can require software processing. Regardless of what camera you use and the amount of time you invest, the following photographs should be sought out whenever possible - in an ideal situation. It's especially important to do this when dealing with rare fungi. This will help identifiers. The following comments are over-zealous but let the reader be assured. These comments intended in a completely polite, cordial manner - without critique or demanding standards of anyone. They are here to inspire you and bring out the very, very best within you.
Pileus
Gills/Teeth/Pores/False Gills/Etc.
Stipe
Stipe Base
Annulus
Cut In Half
Spore Print
Substrate & Primordia When Present
Habitat
The Dried Collection Awaiting Analysis
Spores Via Microscopy
Cheilocystidia Via Microscopy
Pleurocystidia Via Microscopy
Pileipellis Via Microscopy
Mycelium On Antibiotic Agar In Petri Dishes
By taking multiple excellent photos, the odds increase for proper identification.
You are likely to benefit by having multiple tabs open in your browser during identification, including:
https://mushroomobserver.org/glossary_terms
https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/1417?q=1mvpX
https://images.mushroomobserver.org/Glossary_Vellinga.pdf
https://permies.com/t/55316/a/38472/Mushroom-Identification-Chart.jpg
http://indexfungorum.org/Names/Names.asp
https://www.mycobank.org/page/Simple%20names%20search
https://www.wikipedia.org/
http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/huntspec.htm
https://mycologyst.art/mushroom-identification/mushroom-morphology/Recommendations: You should read or re-read Psilocybin Mushrooms Of The World in physical, paperback fashion. You may also benefit by reading Identification Of The Larger Fungi: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/60159/60159-h/60159-h.htm. Another free guide to read is Edible And Poisonous Mushrooms Of Canada located here: https://www.npss.sk.ca/docs/2_pdf/Edible_and_Poisonous_Mushrooms_of_Canada.pdf. However, you should take preference over that text with the following: How To Identify Mushrooms To Genus I: Macroscopic Features. For microscope-related taxonomy you should also have How To Identify Mushrooms To Genus III: Microscopic Features. It will also be good to have a digital, searchable version of this book which you may need to create.
You may live in a locality where a book has already been published that covers most or nearly all of the fungi nearby. You can search via Google or another search engine to see. For example, you can Google "Fungi of Indonesia" or "Indonesia Mushroom Field Guide" and similar search phrases. Books like this are a great but imperfect way to start identifying your local fungi.
You should eventually obtain a digital copy of The Agaricales In Modern Taxonomy, fourth edition, and view it in an app that can search for text. https://www.mediafire.com/file/kwa47ky40n7ox86/Agaricales_in_Modern_Taxonomy_1986.pdf/file?fbclid=IwAR04Sgy_VUHeG3S5EAoxlZ2QKAOzJDVmDeuPE1aCeLvgFgtEvWBQWlKoz_I This book, written by Rolf Singer with the works of other mycologists, may seem intimidating for multiple years or decades to some individuals. Instead of treating the book as something to memorize or something to be intimidated by, may I suggest simply referencing it for searches with key words? Don't let this book intimidate you. Note: The text above is searchable for many pages, but not every single page. A better digital copy is needed urgently.
You should also have www.google.com open. You will be searching, sometimes without luck, for literature constantly. Some of the literature you will search for is not going to be available without purchase - usually with a ridiculous price tag. Some literature will be terrible, to the point of being absurd. Some literature may be in Latin, Italian, Spanish, Chinese, Russian, French, or a different language. In that event, you may be able to successfully use one of the digital translators listed above. Some literature will be out-of-print. Some literature will be good. Very, very rarely the literature will be excellent.
Advancing taxonomists may find interesting details in the following out-of-print book: https://www.nhbs.com/methods-for-working-with-macrofungi-book. A searchable, digital copy of this text would be best. Others are also in need of it badly. The following book, by the same author, may also help some of you who are rapidly advancing: https://www.summerfieldbooks.com/product/cytology-and-plectology-of-the-hymenomycetes-2nd-revised-edition/
No matter what text(s) you personally obtain and prefer, I assure you that most - if not all - mycology literature contains flaws - especially when the literature is contrasted with all known authorities. Some of these flaws are so significant that you will be shocked. You're going to have to figure out a way to not allow that to bother you, and to realize when an author has been incomplete, incorrect, partially correct, ambiguous, or otherwise unhelpful. It happens very, very frequently. The most technical mushroom identifier in the world is probably Else C. Vellinga. Her literature, in my opinion, is far superior to any mycologist who has ever published generalized identification literature.
Let's rapidly discuss some of the approaches you can take with priority for identifying gilled mushrooms. There are a fair number of people who try to identify collections by simple visual comparison to photos on the World Wide Web. This works a lot of the time, but mistakes are also frequently made. Other people just go by memory of what they've already learned, which is also a flawed path for most individuals. Some people also use local mushroom identification books and/or Mushrooms Demystified and California Mushrooms: The Comprehensive Identification Guide. Other people prefer digital "keys," which can be viewed on many sites like www.mushroomexpert.com. Some folks include Wikipedia and Google search results, with preference for the scientific paper or monograph that originally describes a genus with its known species. Some folks also use apps that attempt to automatically identify fungi. Other people strategically photograph mushrooms, and post them where others can help identify them. This includes multiple images that are inclusive of the cap (pileus), stem (stipe), gills (lamellae), a vertically sliced whole specimen, and the substrate (soil, wood chips, etc). Sometimes these observations are accompanied with photographs of microscopic features such as spores, cheilocystidia, pleurocystidia, caulocystidia, and the pileipellis cells. People from around the world can then comment and/or propose a scientific name for these observations. More recently, people are now adding their DNA sequences into observations created on Mushroom Observer and into Genbank. All of these methods are useful, viable methods. However, whole (complete) genome sequencing accompanied by a thorough, personalized Taxonomic Routine or Taxonomic Protocol, are deeper, lasting ambitions with higher results. If you aren't in a position to perform DNA sequencing, you probably are in a position in which you can implement a taxonomic protocol. Here's three protocols, written for a gradual, immersive experience.
Taxonomic Protocol 1: A Basic Method
All people interested in observing fungi should have at least one camera. Good or excellent photos can be taken of all aspects of a collection. This includes, when present, photos of the cap, stem, gills/pores/etc, substrate, and the surrounding environment. An additional high quality photo of the spore print(s) should also be included when possible, preferably on aluminum foil, a microscope glass slide, or typing paper. If possible, you should also have a compound microscope along with an additional camera for photographing spores, cystidia, and additional cells. Without these things, identification cannot be confident in many situations. These are the basics, without going into too much detail.
Taxonomic Protocol 2: More Than Most
Some fungi are secretive, hidden lifeforms that cannot be observed by the un-aided human eye. Even in those fungi which are blatantly visible, hidden attributes are available for observation with greater effort. DNA sequencing can be implemented in these circumstances, and in most circumstances. The official "barcode" region for DNA sequencing for fungi is the ITS (Internal Transcribed Spacer) region. At a minimum, a DNA sequence should cover the full ITS barcode if the material can be sequenced. You can also sequence multiple regions. At a maximum, a DNA sequence can cover all regions of a fungus. This is known as a complete, whole genome sequence. This is the current, "cutting edge" of identification. I see no reason why complete genome sequencing will not remain the champion of identification in the future, along with macroscopic and microscopic details.
You should know something nuanced regarding DNA sequencing. DNA is not something to be intimidated by. It's also not something that should be used as fuel for arrogance. DNA sequencing is a task. It has steps. All that has to be done is to follow the steps. Let's keep it simple.
Taxonomic Protocol 3: No DNA. Collection Is Hydrated And Present
In this circumstance, you have no access to DNA sequencing, but you have the collection. If you already know a general classification name for a fungus (Agaricales, Psathyrellaceae, etc.), but you cannot determine a genus or species name despite going thru every piece of available literature, you can get creative. If you've explored everything above and beyond, here are a few ideas:
☐ Post your observation on both Mushroom Observer and iNaturalist, and see if someone else proposes a name.
☐ Go thru the following list as though it were a checklist, and see if there are more taxonomic characters available in the collection: https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/1417?q=1mxVG
☐ Ask somebody on Mushroom Observer or another identification site via a personal message.
☐ Dry the collection and mail it to a mycologist who specializes in your fungus for further identification.
☐ See if there is a new, previously un-noticed taxonomic character visible in your collection and use it as a potential item for further investigation and inquiry. Use low magnification with a hand loupe, magnifying glass, or reading glasses.
☐ Have a good look at this: https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/1720?q=1mxVG
☐ Return to the locality where you found the collection, and try to observe more collections.
☐ Try time-lapse photography from primordia formation to complete decay to see if any additional characteristics are observable.
❑ The first thing that can be done after photography is an aroma test. Smell the mushroom as it is - without any other effort. Then, very briefly rub a mushroom cap and the stem. Repeat a few times and do another smell. You can also utilize a knife and cut the mushroom, and then immediately perform a smell test. Record these aromas (almond-like, bakery-like, like dark cacao chocolate, apricot-like, like frozen orange juice, "normal/common," cucumber-like, anise-like, garlic-like, coal-tar-like, radish-like, cedar-like, bleach-like, spermatic, shrimp-like, maraschino-cherry-like, acrid, etc.). You can repeat this smell test after completely drying out your mushroom collections. Some species will only reveal profound, distinct aromas once they are dehydrated. Sometimes they also need to be dried and then stored in a ziplock bag for a few days before an aroma is obvious and striking.
❑ The next thing you can do is similar, but it involves your mouth. If you have a stomach/digestive sensitivity, I cannot ethically recommend performing this test. It does not imply that you eat (chew and swallow) any material. You should not perform this test if there is a sign of insects being present, including their larvae or boring holes. Also, avoid doing this with decayed or decomposing fungi. Only do this with flawless specimens.
❑ To conduct the test you'll nibble off a very small piece of mushroom material, and very briefly try to get a flavor description (ie mildly bitter, acrid, gourmet, spicy, none, common, etc.). All of the material is then spit out. Hands and mouth are then thoroughly rinsed. It probably would be a good idea to then gargle for one minute with Listerine, but I doubt anyone does that. Note: I know of one mycologist who has performed taste tests on deadly Galerina and Pholiotina species without any problems. I can't recommend anyone else trying this, though.
Tip: You can use your bare hands (rather than wearing lab gloves) when doing all of this, but wash your hands very thoroughly when an opportunity arises, especially before touching food. If you have a skin sensitivity (medical condition), particularly on the hands, lab gloves are recommendable. You're far more likely to have a problem with mosquitoes while collecting fungi than a bad reaction from holding mushrooms.
Update: There is now one known fungus on Earth that appears to cause skin problems consistently when handled, although more research is required to verify this. Its name is Podostroma cornu-damae (= Trichoderma cornu-damae, Hypocrea cornu-damae). This is a deadly poisonous fungus when eaten, as well. See the Wikipedia article on this name for more.
The following links will take you to the largest amount of unidentified-to-species-level fungi - also known as "The Bin". You may be able to help with some of them, and perhaps many of them. Tip: Avoid going thru these observations if you are new to identification.
Agaricales sensu lato (Currently with 8236 unidentified collections)
Polyporales (Currently with 6345 unidentified collections)
Russula (Currently with 6113 unidentified collections)
Fungi (Currently with 5275 unidentified collections)
Mycena (Currently with 3668 unidentified collections)
Psathyrella (Currently with 3396 unidentified collections)
Agaricus (Currently with 2665 unidentified collections)
Lactarius Currently with 2664 unidentified collections)
Entoloma (Currently with 2613 unidentified collections)
Amanita (Currently with 2729 unidentified collections)
Inocybe sensu lato (Currently with 2301 unidentified collections)
Amanita sect. Vaginatae sensu Zhu L. Yang (Currently with 1943 unidentified collections)
Lichen (Currently with 1821 unidentified collections)
Hygrocybe (Currently with 1698 unidentified collections)
Boletaceae (Currently with 1496 unidentified collections)
Marasmius (Currently with 1390 unidentified collections)
Laccaria (Currently with 1256 unidentified collections)
Hebeloma (Currently with 1041 unidentified collections)
Ganoderma (Currently with 1038 unidentified collections)
Stereum (Currently with 1031 unidentified collections)
You should become familiar with stature types - gradually. Stature types are adjectives for any fungus from any genus possessing a categorical form similar to a genus known for those taxonomic macro-characters. Stature types can also be used to describe a collection that is similar to an already established form not associated with a genus name (secotioid, etc.). See the Mushroom Observer glossary for the following terms: Mycenoid, Collybioid, Omphalinoid, Tricholomatoid, Clitocyboid, Pleurotoid, Panaeoloid, Hygrophoroid, Psilocyboid, Entolomoid, Russuloid, Gymnopiloid, Inocyboid, Secotioid, etc. Used in a sentence, a person might say, "This collection looks panaeoloid, but it does not fit in the genus Panaeolus due to its microscopic characters." Another example involves an intermediate form: "This collection had small, thin mushrooms with a mycenoid to collyboid body form."
See: https://www.mycoguide.com/files/methods/agarics-stature-types.pdf
Note: Carefully observe these names, as some have highly similar spellings, but may have different definitions applied to them. You should consider saving a copy of the linked file, and try to obtain - or create - a more technical version of it.
An inappropriate amount of mycological literature has been produced with very low quality, and very poor use of language - up to the present date of human history. This has left many of us not only frustrated, but incapable of identifying many fungi already described. This could potentially lead to dangerous poisonings. In the event you stumble across a scientific paper that was poorly articulated to the point of not making sense, you may be tempted to email the author(s). Let me offer some remarks regarding this approach. Some mycologists in the year 2022 blatantly seem to ignore each other and the public, unaware of the domino-like effect they are contributing to. I can't blame them completely. In some instances, they are probably in their own mental-world, and they're just trying to control who gets to be part of that world. In other instances, they may believe that they are too busy. In many instances, they probably don't know the answers to the questions they are receiving, and they don't want that revealed. It's hard for people to write cooly, "I wish I knew the answer to that." Other times, they may have been approached verbally in a way that they did not like, or the email account was questionable to them. They may also be dealing with digital spam, digital viruses, spyware, and other offensive approaches by both government employees and individuals among the public. Surely, some mycologists must believe they are receiving questions unworthy of a response, and silence follows this mentality. Regardless of their intent, situation, and interpretation, if you email an author for clarity, you are probably wasting your time. I wouldn't try contacting them. Many mycology papers don't even provide a valid, honest, or functioning email address in the Corresponding Author section of their papers. This is so sad, but it is true.
Notice that not only does Mushroom Observer have species names in the "correct" sense, it also has group names. For example, Mushroom Observer shows Panaeolus cinctulus and Panaeolus cinctulus group. When you see a group name, it was created to organize observations that are nearly identical to a species, but they possess one or more nuances. Some of these groups may eventually lead to the discovery of new-to-science species.
You will also see sp- names like Amanita “sp-T06”. This is a rather new method of naming taxa which still require further study before receiving an official name. When you see these names, they may be accompanied by the text "crypt. temp." which is an abbreviation for temporarily cryptic. That basically means more analysis is required to understand and further classify those taxa.
sensu names also exist. Sensu means "in the sense of" and it can be followed by:
- "lato" (in the widest sense of the description)
- "stricto" (in the strictest sense of the description)
- with an author's name (as this particular author described the taxon)
- by a locality such as CA abbreviated for California (in the sense of the taxa being collected in California)
"auct" (in the sense of subsequent authors)
Other varieties of sensu names also exist.
The nomenclature (formal naming) of fungi is not without rules and oversight. These rules are overseen by the International Code Of Nomenclature For Algae, Fungi, And Plants (ICNafp). While no one should expect you to memorize these rules, try to become familiar with this text and be able to reference it, as well as search within it. This is especially necessary in regard to questionable names that have no substance or meaning. Some names have been illegitimately published. Some names have been invalidly published. Some names have been ineffectively published.
More: https://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/pages/intro/title_page.html
I have found that I learn drastically more about mushrooms whenever I attempt to teach - thru writing - while learning that information myself. One of the things I strongly recommend doing is creating Mushroom Observer Species Lists like this one - with the intention of authentically, properly informing viewers: https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/2094?q=1n0ZK
These lists usually take about 2-3 days roughly to create a firm introductory version, depending on the size of the genus. Species lists are important and very helpful not only to one's self, but also to others. You're writing should be capable of helping others. Here's a template (+) version to save you some time if you'd like to make one: https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/2101
Some levels of scientific classification have properly designated type collections or type species which are representative of those scientific names. Type species exist for every properly published genus, subgenus, section, clade, and some other levels of classification. For example, when a publishing author creates a new genus, a type species (primary representative) is formally designated. The genus Psilocybe has Psilocybe semilanceata as its type species. The process of designating a type species is called typification. Note: There are a variety of different types, including type, lectotype, holotype, clonotype, isotype, neotype, epitype, and other types. It is important to know about type species in some scenarios.
Below: Psilocybe semilanceata
I want to be straight-forward with you regarding one specific challenge in identification: Literature access. As an identifier you could potentially spend over ten thousand euros on books, scientific papers, magazines, posters, and other literature. That's right: Over ten thousand euros. The following link will show you the minimum recommended literature by one student of mycology: https://www.mushroomexpert.com/references.pdf
Instead of spending this offensive amount of cash - which you probably don't have - you could explore an alternative to this. What would be far more clever is to generate all of this literature into a searchable, digital library that friends can share with one another using cryptic Dropbox accounts, Proton Drive accounts, and Google Drive accounts. To do this thoroughly, you might need to befriend a mycologist or group of mycologists who are willing to open their personal libraries to you. Other techniques can also be explored. So far, mycologists and identifiers have not attained to this idea, but some sharing is definitely occurring among friends. I suggest you consider going to the next level while also allowing your friends to go to the next level with you.
Also, someone needs to create a much better, new version of The Agaricales In Modern Taxonomy by the late Mycologist Rolf Singer. It needs a massive visual glossary to address all of the terms he used and failed to properly define. It also needs color photos included with captions to the point that these taxa are easily, unambiguously identifiable via this new text. A different person also needs to publish an honest, accurate pronunciation guide to all fungal names while being euphonic yet strongly articulate. If you are looking for meaningful work, this is "next level" stuff, and these items will be challenging fights to endure.
It will be good to have constant access to a personal library, including a digital library that is searchable. Whatever genera and species you are interested in will require the pursuit of literature. Some of that literature will be divided into hardback, paperback, personally printed out literature, and digital literature. Try to insure all of your digital literature is OCR-enabled (searchable), and that every page of every publication is perfectly viewable. You can obtain free literature from a variety of websites, but www.researchgate.net and www.mykoweb.com/systematics/index.html are good to become familiar with right away. There's many other good resources. You should try to create the most sophisticated, excellent personal digital library possible, while allowing your acquaintances to have the same literature you have.
Tip: You may be tempted to download literature from a popular Russian site or one of its mirrors. These sites may or may not involve giving scientific papers out for free (in the wrong sense of "free"). Right now Russia is doing multiple terrible things internationally, including digital stuff. So are many other nations. I would not mess with any Russian websites until that nation has been dealt with properly. That isn't likely to occur anytime soon, because the conduct of the majority of people on this planet is of a very, very low Nature. I believe it is a more preferable ethic to not steal literature, even when there is an absolute need for that literature to make a confident identification. None of us should be placed in a position where we have to steal literature, or buy literature for an obscene, offensive price tag. If we find ourselves in that position, that doesn't mean we are entitled to stealing literature. We should not be implementing theft or over-competition in the kingdom fungi, even if it's to prevent a poisoning. We should be classy, cool, and kind - to the best extent we can become. We should be reaching for higher virtues, including teamwork, patience, and innovation. We should also be capable of creating distance away from evil by using strength, technique, legitimacy, and resolve. We can, however, share privately, just like we do with our photos, foods, and beverages.
You will definitely stumble upon many terms that are not in any glossary, nor defined properly by the author(s) who used these terms. Other times, the glossary definition(s) will not suffice for your needs. When this happens, it will basically become your responsibility to try and learn those definitions, and add them to at least one glossary - preferably the MO glossary. In the event you need assistance on your quest for a definition, you may wish to use this: https://mushroomobserver.org/species_list/show_species_list/1753?q=1n6mY
Tip: Please be very, very confident - with complete clarity - before editing the MO glossary.
You will notice that scientific names for fungi change, and sometimes that can be rather frequent. This can be based upon new DNA sequencing conclusions, names being recognized as not having priority while other names take priority over them, and other reasons. This is something to keep an eye out for, and something that requires updates by the identification communities. You can lookup names on name databases like Index Fungorum and Mycobank, but a higher authority is a relevant scientific publication that indicates a name change.
One of the recent changes to Mushroom Observer was the inclusion of the "Site ID" feature included side-by-side with the proposed name(s). Here's an example: Marasmius androsaceus was deprecated in favor of Gymnopus androsaceus. Mushroom Observer shows observations still labelled with Marasmius androsaceus with the following text: "Observation ######: Marasmius androsaceus (L.) Fr. (Site ID) (Gymnopus androsaceus)". Here is a relevant observation: https://mushroomobserver.org/134590?q=1n7F0
All of us - perhaps - have had bad experiences in life which we wish to delete from memory forever. However, identifying mushrooms requires memory and analysis. People who possess a very strong, lasting memory of fungal species become strong, lasting identifiers. Memory should be instilled into one's self when attempting to make fungal identification a lifelong pursuit. To do this, you will have to determine the requirements to instill this capability within you for life. Repetition, constant subjection to mushrooms, constant subjection to mushroom photography, and constant subjection to mushroom literature appears to be absolutely required - without exception. Memory matters. Without memory, we become poor identifiers with neither confidence nor substance. Someone among us may wish to consider designing an open source, extra large mushroom memory card game to develop and hone their memory matching skills. Check this out: https://www.amazon.com/Stages-Learning-Materials-Picture-Vegetables/dp/B009TEENM4/ref=sr_1_7?crid=1LYMZP54Y7TDF&keywords=memory+game+cards+fungi+mushrooms&qid=1664288526&sprefix=memory+game+cards+fungi+mushrooms%2Caps%2C106&sr=8-7
Caution: While most people who identify fungi seem to enjoy the process, some people may be prone to apply their attention-to-detail beyond fungi. If you do this, you may potentially experience a difficulty or two. I have personally struggled with the amount of details I see in people's faces, and in regard to the physical cleanliness of localities. Please do not apply the same level of judgement or detailed observation to people's appearances or to dogs. You might regret it.
Warning: This subject can get very difficult and very frustrating. When you get frustrated, I believe it's a good idea to take a break, and return when the frustration subsides. We don't need any more grumpy mycologists or grumpy, exasperated mushroomic people. There's a lot of folks in these two categories who are permanently grumpy, and this cluster of people are in need of healing, not more grumpy people around them. If you get frustrated, please find a way to ethically address the frustration so it's not sitting down there in your gut while permeating your mind every hour of every day.
Tip: I recommend slowly creating your own taxonomic (identification) system uniquely tailored to your highest, most excellent imagination. Mushroom Observer also needs its own general digital identification system, in my opinion, and one of you may be the right match for developing it. If you're interested, you'll probably be using Github Desktop and Ruby On Rails. One developer is working on an artificial intelligence visual identification system, but a sophisticated digital key for all fungi would also be of great assistance, and it could stimulate the minds of more people. This could be visually designed in a similar manner as aesthetic audio signal path diagrams created for products like the "??AxeFX III manual??":https://www.fractalaudio.com/downloads/manuals/axe-fx-3/Axe-Fx-III-Owners-Manual.pdf. It could show blocks labelled with simple phrases, such as those available in the Mushroom Observer glossary. The current keys I have reviewed - which may be in the hundreds - did not help me identify nearly all of the fungi I have observed in the past decade. I gave up on using them, with the occasional exception. That's me, though. Other people use keys and it seems to work for them. If you want to try a large key, check out: https://www.mushroomexpert.com/major_groups.html
Note: Skip this if you want to.
I want to be honest and thorough with readers about this topic. I find it so difficult to talk about, that I would really rather refer you to the literature of author Paul Stamets. I cannot possibly sum things up as good as he has. However, I may have an angle here that is potentially helpful and different. Active fungi (those containing Psilocybin and related chemicals) can do different things to different people. They can also do different things to the same person on different occasions. They are not something to toy around with or dis-respect. In fact, some people will accidentally learn to profoundly respect mushrooms because they are so powerful in altering consciousness. Let us remember to respect them and one another.
I firmly believe, whether right or wrong, that humans have very poor approaches to using active fungi. These species are sometimes called Sacred Mushrooms for a reason. If you know you are going to do something sacred, shouldn't you at least prepare well in advance by reading some literature and by designing an atmosphere that will nourish such an event? I think the answer here is definitely a "yes," and I don't mind sounding a tiny bit arrogant to get that point across - correctly.
Not everyone appears to be compatible with these fungi. Some people could easily have bad experiences. If you aren't sure about them, then my advice would be, "Hey, you can skip this activity if you'd like." If you decide to experience them, it would be wise to start with an incredibly low dose. There are people out and about on the internet recommending absurd dosages, and these folks clearly do not have a grasp on being responsible in discussing such a topic.
Be prepared. You've all probably heard the phrase "set and setting." I see no signs of anyone at all paying attention to either set nor setting, with one or two exceptions. I have traveled internationally extensively. I have lived in many places, and visited an absurd amount of localities. I have read a ridiculous amount of literature and commentary. I stand unimpressed with the conduct of the human species, and with the settings provided by humans - worldwide. If you are to embark on a very personal experience with fungi, I caution you with kindness in advance: Work on your intentions and your living quarters in advance. You may find that mushrooms will distinguish you from others, and that what you learn is actually difficult to go through. I say again: Be prepared. If you want to go for even more, then I would also begin working on personal conduct and higher personal standards.
"What are people like who have gone deep with mushrooms?" you might ask. Good question. I still have some research to do on this topic because I obviously haven't met everyone on this planet, nor will I. Here's what I think: I think a lot of men who nature wants to train in a very specific manner - over time - are being partly informed and somewhat molded by these fungi. I'm talking about MMA fighters, military members, athletes, psychologists, scientists, psychiatrists, researchers, software developers, hardware developers, and people who have not yet adapted to the energies harvested across the Earth. I also think there's a strong artistic fungal audience. You can clearly see this in the works of several artists. College and university students appear to be the largest category of people interested in exploring these fungi, and this interest appears to be a very short term interest. There are depressed people interested as well, and anxious people. There are also alcoholics, and there are people using them to deal with end-of-life struggles. There are also people with high strangeness. I've also noticed an unfortunate amount of mean people who have embraced dishonesty with high confidence. There also appears to be a fair number of entertainers and comedians who have experienced them. There's also plenty of people who are super grumpy, and their activities are disturbing. There are alienated outcasts as well, mis-treated by society. There are also selfish people who hoard and never contribute to just causes. Finally, there are people who seem to be influenced sexually by fungi. There's a spectrum of individuals who appear to have gone deep with active mushrooms, just as a spectrum exists for those who will never take them. Almost no one on this planet, relatively speaking against an estimated eight billion humans, has actually gone deep with fungi. This is self-evident. It is more than painfully obvious.
A strong majority of the people on this planet have not ingested active fungi. Many don't even know such a thing exists, or they don't care that such a thing exists. Most people just care about plain food, effortless pleasure, simplistic shelter, and to not have to think for themselves with any significance. That's my take and my experience as a traveler. The cities of the Earth are practically covered in dog dung and urine - which is obviously something that is not conducive to celebrating fungi, hunting fungi, or cultivating an aesthetic, healthy city. Many cities are also filthy otherwise, and on several levels. One can literally feel the filth of some cities and the forthcoming tragedies that inevitably await those who live in them. There is clearly almost no visionary or mushroom-driven architecture or living quarters, with very, very few exceptions. I see practically zero mycogardening, zero mycoforestry plans, and practically zero cultivation in comparison to other dominant activities. This feeds into the truly debased mentality and shallow, self-sabotaging drive of humans. Humans have achieved false standards for euphony, honesty, privacy, respect, health, the aesthetic, the innocent, cleanliness, kindness, and the creative. The adults - generally speaking - are literally playing bad cops and bad robbers as adults, only with guns, batons, carbon-polluting cars that have to be removed from the streets, and other items - accompanied by a pathetic sense of adventure. They're also playing we can burn it down and act innocent while calling themselves good people worthy of high esteem. They're doing this with their intentions, with their daily activities, with their sexual activities, with their criminal activities, and it's happening globally - regardless of gender, age, religion, lack of religion, education background, work background, current job title, etc. Things are quite bleak. They are beyond bleak, and they are what I see, feel, hear, experience, and know every day. The human species definitely appears to be pushing deeper and deeper into enjoyment from seeing the pain or distress of others, war, disease, generalized conflict, natural disasters, civil unrest, police violence, inflated esteem, false security, greed, inflated dis-honesty, a lack of formality, financial corruption, war crimes, profound arrogance, false leadership, false "good guys and gals," and what some call the phenomenon. This leads us to another point...
Having A Difficult Experience With Them
If all else fails, and you are lost, disoriented, weak, damaged, etc., you can choose to use this as a repetitive thought: Let's be cool. Let's be kind. Let's keep it clean, and let's keep it strong. You can also choose to retreat and consider implementing what are now known as trip killers, but I can't go beyond saying more than this. More details can be found here: https://www.youtube.com/c/PsychedSubstanceChannel/search?query=trip%20killerAdditionally, you can try the 4-7-8 breathing technique, which really can work. Have a quick look: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YRPh_GaiL8s Note: You should not practice this technique while driving or operating machinery. Practice should occur well before a Psilocybin experience occurs.
Active fungi can provoke amazing and beautiful experiences. For some, they allow an ushering in of life's most important experience that coincides with feeling reborn. These fungi also appear to instigate the following on the opposite spectrum: Hallucinations that are highly undesirable, physical phenomena that cannot be explained, non-physical phenomena, temporary paralysis, seizure-like fits, amplified frustration or anxiety, the need to sing and play music, a loss of control over personal consciousness, extreme sensitivity to artworks and sounds, the need to maintain personal happiness at peak levels, psychic phenomena that is not desirable, forthcoming visionary dreams, forthcoming responsibility for one's consciousness rather than "auto-pilot" consciousness, intense fear, religious fervor, the inability to speak, generalized paranoia towards all people, glossolalia and native language utterance, vomiting, fainting, unfounded fearlessness, inflated personal esteem, dilated pupils for several hours, the "runs," confusion, the ability to see people's inner and outer energies which may not fit into anyone else's familiarity, a desire to experience ceremony, true and false premonitions accompanied by a sense of profound responsibility, feeling a deep void (something vital is obviously missing), susceptibility to believing a powerful myth, immersion into a mental world that is strictly black & white with symbols rapidly being seen, a forthcoming need to understand occult teachings which is likely to be futile, loss of coordination, body dysmorphia, emergence into a state of awe and fascination that no one else can relate to, inaccurate depth perception, vulnerability, interaction with a different intelligence, and a feeling that one has truly departed mainstream consciousness permanently. Lastly, and perhaps of higher concern, these fungi may induce a bifurcation in personal consciousness among an unknown percentage of people. All of these things appear to be possibilities within the Psilocybin experience, and you have a right to know this in advance. Other things can also occur, including serious insights that may take years to process.
I write these things to be direct with you, not to elbow you in any one direction. I prefer that this text provides a nuanced but informed sense for these fungi, rather than giving opportunity to over-fantasizing. If you want to skip this activity, skip it. It's your choice. I neither support nor condemn the use of these fungi. They would be so useful if only honesty, kindness, awareness, caution, fairness, coolness, preparation, ethics, art, depth, and higher intentions were a priority for the human species and for other intelligences.
Honest Recommendation: https://www.alexgrey.com/art/anatomical/be-a-good-human-being
https://wiki.counterculturelabs.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JoltDnGYn3g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fodgMQ5fNQI
https://wiki.counterculturelabs.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing#Supplies_Needed
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=qyaNM6lJmGo
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=p9-FOMZjVg8
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=OMU_vpOticw
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=YttdAPU31V0
https://docs.google.com/document/u/0/d/13B9OSE_ar_vWWZnHZegr2FROnMak78qHZxEZXc1E9jk/mobilebasic
https://images.mushroomobserver.org/microscopy.pdf
https://images.mushroomobserver.org/Fungal%20Microscopy.pdf
(Fast Forward To 12:30) https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=XXVEyq4nmaY
https://www.agilent.com/cs/library/support/documents/a05296.pdf
https://chemrxiv.org/engage/api-gateway/chemrxiv/assets/orp/resource/item/617755bc913a74cab06a8a2d/original/rapid-quantification-of-psilocybin-with-reversed-phase-hplc-and-single-wavelength-detection.pdf
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=kJVXAALRfRo
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=glQzKG0E1Gg
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=kDmn7tgB9GI
(See Page 15) https://fungi.com/products/the-mushroom-cultivator
https://fungi.com/products/growing-gourmet-and-medicinal-mushrooms
https://mycokeys.pensoft.net/article/56691/
https://mushroomobserver.org/glossary_terms/1120
Note: Any Corrections Or Updates, Eloquently Advised, Are Welcome! Cheers!
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