Mandrake

Appearance

The boundary between the two species "Mandragora autumnalis" and "Mandragora officinarum" varies among authors, with some regarding them as the same species. Whatever distinction is used, plants of "M. autumnalis" are herbaceous perennials, with a large upright tap-root, often branched and sometimes shaped somewhat like a person. There is little or no stem, the leaves being borne in a basal rosette up to 60 cm across. The flowers are clustered at the centre of the rosette, each with five sepals, five petals and five stamens. Both the sepals and petals are fused at the base forming two five-lobed bell-shaped cups. The ovary has two chambers and a long style. The fruit is a fleshy berry with many seeds.

For those authors who regard "Mandragora autumnalis" as the main species found around the Mediterranean, it has flowers varying in colour but typically violet or purple, 30–40 mm long, and berries that are yellow or orange and egg-shaped, while the much less widespread "Mandragora officinarum" has somewhat smaller flowers, greenish-white in colour, and berries that are yellow and globe-shaped. Those who regard "M. officinarum" as the main species found around the Mediterranean, with "M. autumnalis" being found only in the Levant, use the size of the seeds as one of the distinguishing factors, those of "M. autumnalis" being more than twice the size of those of "M. officinarum". In Israel, where the native taxon is "M. autumnalis" in both approaches, it flowers between December and February, i.e. not only in the autumn as the specific epithet might suggest.

Distribution

In one treatment, "Mandragora autumnalis" is the main species of "Mandragora" found all around the Mediterranean, in Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, southern Portugal, southern Spain, southern Italy, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan, being absent in northern Italy and a region on the coast of former Yugoslavia, where it is replaced by "M. officinarum". In another treatment, "Mandragora autumnalis" is native only to the Levant, the species found elsewhere around the Mediterranean being "M. officinarum".

Defense

All species of "Mandragora" contain highly biologically active alkaloids, tropane alkaloids in particular. Jackson and Berry were unable to find any differences in the composition of these chemicals between "Mandragora autumnalis" and "Mandragora officinarum". Alkaloids present included hyoscyamine, hyoscine, cuscohygrine, apoatropine, 3-alpha-tigloyloxytropane, 3-alpha,6-beta-ditigloyloxytropane and belladonnine. Non-alkaloid constituents included sitosterol and beta-methylesculetin.

The alkaloids make the plant, particularly the root and leaves, poisonous. Clinical reports of the effects of consumption of "Mandragora autumnalis" include severe symptoms similar to those of atropine poisoning, including blurred vision, dilation of the pupils, dryness of the mouth, difficulty in urinating, dizziness, headache, vomiting, blushing and a rapid heart rate. Hyperactivity and hallucinations also occurred in the majority of patients.

"Mandragora" species have a long use in traditional medicine, an extract being used for its real or supposed aphrodisiac, hypnotic, emetic, purgative, sedative and pain-killing effects. Tropane alkaloids are known to be effective as analgesics and anaesthetics, and can be used to increase circulation and dilate pupils, among other effects. Continued use of "M. autumnalis" in folk medicine was reported in Sicily in 2014.