Skip to main content

Ulcers of the Tongue

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Tongue Lesions

Abstract

Ulcers of the tongue are classified according to their etiology into traumatic, inflammatory, dyspeptic, and malignant ulcers as shown below.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Bombeccari GP, Guzzi G, Pallotti F, Porrini M, Giannì AB, Spadari F. Large oral ulcer of tongue related to dental trauma. Stomatologija, Baltic Dental Maxillofac J. 2017;19:51–4.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Velly AM, Franco EL, Schlecht N, et al. Relationship between dental factors and upper aerodigestive tract cancer. Oral Oncol. 1998;34:284–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Kabat GC, Hebert JR, Wynder EL. Risk factors for oral cancer in women. Cancer Res. 1989;49:2803–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Gallego L, Junquera L. Oral carcinoma associated with implant-supported overdenture trauma: a casa report. Dent Traumatol. 2009;25:e3–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Piemonte ED, Lasoz JP, Brunotto M. Relationship between chronic trauma of the oral mucosa, oral potentially malignant disorders and oral cancer. J Oral Pathol Med. 2010;39:513–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Dayal, Reddy R, Anuradha Bhat K. Malignant potential of oral submucous fibrosis due to intraoral trauma. Indian J Med Sci. 2000;54:182–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Thumfart W, Weidenbecher M, Waller G, Pesch HJ. Chronic mechanical trauma in the etiology of oropharyngeal carcinoma. J Maxillofac Surg. 1978;6:217–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Marshall JR, Graham S, Haughey BP, Shedd D, O’Shea R, Brasure J, et al. Smoking, alcohol, dentition and diet in the epidemiology of oral cancer. Eur J Cancer B Oral Oncol. 1992;28B:9–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Rosenquist K. Risk factors in oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma: a population-based case control study in southern Sweden. Swed Dent J Suppl. 2005;179:1–66.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Orbak R, Bayraktar C, Kavrut F, Gűndogdu C. Poor oral hygiene and dental trauma as the precipitating factors of squamous cell carcinoma. Oral Oncol Extra. 2005;41:109–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Gonçales ES, Rubira-Bullen IF, Rubira CM, Miyazawa M, Chinellato LE, Consolaro A. Eosinophilic ulcer of the oral mucosa versus squamous cell carcinoma. Quintessence Int. 2007;38:677–80.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Warnakulasuriya S. Causes of oral cancer-an appraisal of controversies. Br Dent J. 2009;207:471–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Neville BW, Day TA. Oral cancer and precancerous lesions. CA Cancer J Clin. 2002;52:195–215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Meij EHVD, Vries TWD, Eggink HF, Visscher JG. Traumatic lingual ulceration in a newborn: Riga-Fede disease. Ital J Pediatr. 2012;38:20. https://doi.org/10.1186/1824-7288-38-20.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Hegde RJ. Sublingual traumatic ulceration due to neonatal teeth (Riga-Fede disease). J Indian Soc Predod Prev Dent. 2005;23:51–2.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Slaryton R. Treatment alternatives for sublingual traumatic ulceration (Riga-Fede disease). Fed Dent. 2000;22:413–4.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Goho C. Neonatal sublingual ulceration (Riga-Fede disease): reports of cases. J Dent Child. 1996;63:362–4.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Buchanan S, Jenkins CK. Riga-Fede syndrome: natal or neonatal teeth associated with tongue ulceration, case report. Aust Dent J. 1997;42:225–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Rakocz M, Frand M, Brand N. Familial dysautonomia with Riga-Fede disease: report of cases. ASDC J Dent Child. 1987;54:57–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Leung AKC, Robson WLM. Natal teeth: a review. J Natl Med Assoc. 2006;98(2):226–8.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Moreira FCL, Gonçalves IMF. Dentes natais e doença de Riga-Fede. RGO, Rev Gaúcha Odontol. 2010;58(2):257–61.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Baghdadi ZD. Riga-Fede disease: report of 9 cases and review. J Cl Fed Dent. 2001;25:209–13.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Volpato LER, Simões CAD, Simões F, Nespolo PA, Borges AH. Case report Riga-Fede disease associated with natal teeth: two different approaches in the same case. Case Rep Dent. 2015;2015:234961. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/234961.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Dezan CC, Walter LRDF, Gasparoni KW, Sangiorgio JPM, Nogari B, Fernandes KBP. Sublingual traumatic ulcerative lesions caused by the eruption of primary mandibular molars: a case report. Int J Morphol. 2011;29(4):1136–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. da Silva DC, de Freitas PM, Calvo AFB, Gimenez T, Zanola M, Imparato JCP. Treatment of Riga-Fede disease using laser therapy: clinical case report. Odontologia. 2017;65(1):87–91.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Vazzoller RMS, Fernandes RD, de Sena RMM, de Sena AM. Tratamento do herpes simplex por meio da leserterapia: relato de casos. Rev Cient ITPAC. 2016;9(1):1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Khandelwal V, Nayak UA, Nayak PA, Bafna Y. Management of an infant having natal teeth. BMJ Case Rep. 2013:31–3. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2013-010049.

  28. Basavanthappa NN, Kagathur U, Basavanthappa RN, Suryaprakash ST. Natal and neonatal teeth: a retrospective study of 15 cases. Eur J Dent. 2011;5(2):168–72.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Genital Herpes – CDC Fact Sheet. cdc.gov. Dec 8, 2014. Archived from the original on 31 Dec 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Beswick TSL. The origin and the use of the word herpes. Med Hist. 1962;6(3):214–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Chayavichitsilp P, Buckwalter JV, Krakowski AC, Friedlander SF. Herpes simplex. Pediatr Rev. 2009;30(4):119–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Looker KJ, Garnett GP, Schmid GP. An estimate of the global prevalence and incidence of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection. Bull WHO 2008. 2008;86(10):805–12.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Smith JS, Robinson NJ. Age-specific prevalence of infection with herpes simplex virus types 2 and 1: a global review. J Infect Dis. 2002;186(Suppl 1):S3–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Xu F, Fujie X, Maya RS, Benny JK, Geraldine MM, Francis KL, et al. Trends in herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 seroprevalence in the United States. JAMA. 2006;296(8):964–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Xu F, Sternberg MR, Gottlieb SL, Berman SM, Markowitz LE, et al. Seroprevalence of Herpes simplex virus type 2 among persons aged 14–49 years – United States, 2005–2008. MMWR. 2010;59(15):456–9.

    Google Scholar 

  36. CDC Study Finds U.S. Herpes Rates Remain High. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. 2010. Archived from the original on 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Fatahzadeh M, Schwartz RA. Human herpes simplex virus infections: epidemiology, pathogenesis, symptomatology, diagnosis, and management. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2007;57(5):737–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Wu IB, Schwartz RA. Herpetic whitlow. Cutis. 2007;79(3):193–06.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Steiner I, Benninger F. Update on herpes virus infections of the nervous system. Current Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2013;13(12):414.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Stephenson-Famy A, Gardella C. 2014 herpes simplex virus infection during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Clin N Am. 2014;41(4):601–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Gupta R, Warren T, Wald A. Genital herpes. Lancet. 2007;370(9605):2127–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Ashley RL, Militoni, Lee F, Nahmias A, Cores L. Comparison of Western blot (immunoblot) and glycoprotein G-specific immunodot enzyme assay for detecting antibodies to herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 in human sera. J Clin Microbiol. 1988;26(4):662–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. O’Mahony C, Timms MS, Ramsden RT. Local anesthetic creams. BMJ. 1988;297(6661):1468.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Kaminester LH, Pariser RJ, Pariser DM, Weiss JS, Shavin JS, Landsman L, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of topical tetracaine in the treatment of herpes labialis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1999;41(6):996–1001.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Leung DT, Sacks SL. Current treatment options to prevent perinatal transmission of herpes simplex virus. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2003;4(10):1809–19.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Chen F, Xu H, Liu J, Cui Y, Luo X, Zhou Y, et al. Efficacy and safety of nucleoside antiviral drugs for treatment of recurrent herpes labialis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Oral Pathol Med. 2017;46(8):561–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Chon T, Nguyen L, Elliott TC. Clinical inquiries. What are the best treatments for herpes labialis? J Fam Pract. 2007;56(7):576–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Glenny AM, Fernandez Mauleffinch LM, Pavitt S, Walsh T. Interventions for the prevention and treatment of herpes simplex virus in patients being treated for cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;(1):CD006706.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Nasser M, Fedorowicz Z, Khoshnevisan MH, Tabarestani MS. Acyclovir for treating primary herpetic gingivostomatitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;(4):CD006700.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Treister NS, Woo SB. Topical n-docosanol for management of recurrent herpes labialis. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2010;11(5):853–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Perfect MM, Bourne N, Ebel C, Rosenthal SL. Use of complementary and alternative medicine for the treatment of genital herpes. Herpes. 2005;12(2):38–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Beauman JG. Genital herpes: a review. Am Fam Physician. 2005;72(8):1527–34.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Dimitrakopoulos I, Zouloumis L, Lazaridis N, Karakasis D, Trigonidis G, Sichletidis L. Primary tuberculosis of the oral cavity. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1991;72:712–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Gregory, Guptha RB. Incidence of oral manifestations in tuberculosis. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1980;53(2):1334–40.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Krawiecka E, Szponar E. Tuberculosis of the oral cavity: an uncommon but still a live issue. Postepy Dermatologii Alergologii. 2015;32(4):302–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Nalini B, Vinayak S. Tuberculosis in ear, nose, and throat practice: is presentation and diagnosis. Am J Otolaryngol Head Neck Med Surg. 2006;27(1):39–45.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Pekiner FN, Erseven G, Borahan MO, Gumru B. Natural barrier in primary tuberculosis inoculation: oral mucous membrane. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2006;10(12):1418.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Mignogna MD, Muzio LL, Favia G, Ruoppo E, Sammartino G, Zarrelli C. Oral tuberculosis: a clinical evaluation of 42 cases. Oral Dis. 2000;6:25–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Dimitrakopoulos I, Zouloumis L, Lazaridis N, Karakasis D, Trigonidis G, Sichletidis L. Primary tuberculosis of the oral cavity. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 1991;72(6):712–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Weir MR, Thornton GF. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Experience of a community hospital and review of the literature. Am J Med. 1985;79:467–78.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Iype EM, Ramdas K, Pandey M, Jayasree K, Thomas G, Sebestian P, et al. Primary tuberculosis of the tongue: report of three cases. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2001;39:402–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Gupta PP, Fotedar S, Agarwal D, Sansanwal P. Primary tuberculous glossitis in an immunocompetent patient. Hong Kong Med J. 2007;13(4):330–1.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Von Arx DP. Oral tuberculosis. Br Dent J. 2001;190(8):420–2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Sierra C, Fortún J, Barros C, Melcon E, Condes E, Cobo J, et al. Extra-laryngeal head and neck tuberculosis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2000;6:644–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Sacchettini JC, Rubin EJ, Freundlich JS. Drugs versus bugs: in pursuit of the persistent predator mycobacterium tuberculosis. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2008;6:41–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Spigelman MK. New tuberculosis therapeutics: a growing pipeline. J Infect Dis. 2007;196:s28–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Chan B, Khadem TM, Brown J. A review of tuberculosis: focus on bedaquiline. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2013;70(22):1984–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. van den Boogaard J, Kibiki GS, Kisanga ER, Boeree MJ, Aarnoutse RE. New drugs against tuberculosis: problems, progress and evaluation of agents in clinical development. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53(3):849.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Akgoz A, Mukundan S, Lee TC. Imaging of rickettsial, spirochetal, and parasitic infections. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 2012;22:633–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Guidelines for the treatment of Treponema pallidum (syphilis). Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Eyer-Silva WA, Freire MAL, Horta-Araujo CA, Almeida Rosa da Silva G, Francisco da Cunha Pinto J, Raphael de Almeida Ferry F. Secondary syphilis presenting as glossodynia, plaques en Prairie Fauchée, and a split papule at the oral commissure: case report and review. Case Rep Med. 2017;19:897–8.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Lautenschlager S. Diagnosis of syphilis: clinical and laboratory problems. JDDG. 2006;4:1058–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Boellaard R, O’Doherty MJ, Weber WA, Mottaghy FM, Lonsdale MN, Stroobants SG. FDG PET and PET/CT: EANM procedure guidelines for tumour PET imaging: version 1.0. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2010;37:181–200.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Seibt CE, Munerato MC. Secondary syphilis in the oral cavity and the role of the dental surgeon in STD prevention, diagnosis and treatment: a case series study. Braz J Infect Dis. 2016;24:393–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. France CM, Mugayar LR. Intrauterine infections: a literature review. Spec Care Dentist. 2004;24:250–3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Walker GJA, Walker DG. Congenital syphilis: a continuing but neglected problem. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2007;12:198–206.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Scheurkogel MM, Tim J, Jeurissen FJ, Quarles van Ufford HM. Gummatous syphilis of the adrenal gland. Clin Nucl Med. 2012;37:e231–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Shim HJ. Tertiary syphilis mimicking hepatic metastases of underlying primary peritoneal serous carcinoma. World J Hepatol. 2010;2:362–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  79. Pires FR, da Silva PJ, Natal RF, Alves FA, Pinto CA, Rumayor A. Clinicopathologic features, microvessel density, and immunohistochemical expression of ICAM-1 and VEGF in 15 cases of secondary syphilis with oral manifestations. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2016;121:274–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Tamura S, Takimoto Y, Hoshida Y, Okada K, Yoshimura M, Uji K. A case of primary oropharyngeal and gastric syphilis mimicking oropharyngeal cancer. Endoscopy. 2008;40:235–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Willeford WG, Bachmann LH. Syphilis ascendant: a brief history and modern trends. Trop Dis Travel Med Vaccines. 2016;26:20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Azulay RD. Dermatologia, vol. 10. 2nd ed. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan; 1997. p. 190–202.

    Google Scholar 

  83. de Andrade R-S, de Freitas E-M, Rocha B-A, Gusmão ES, Filho M-R-M. JúniorH-M.Oral findings in secondary syphilis. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2018;23(2):e138–43.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Qari H, Villasante C, Richert J, Rees T, Kessler H. The diagnostic challenges of separating chronic ulcerative stomatitis from oral lichen planus. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol. 2015;120:622–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Jaremko WM, Beutner EH, Kumar V, Kipping H, Condry P, Zeid MY, et al. Chronic ulcerative stomatitis associated with a specific immunological marker. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1990;22:215–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Parodi A, Cardo PP. Patients with erosive lichen planus may have antibodies directed to a nuclear antigen of epithelial cells: a study on the antigen nature. J Invest Dermatol. 1990;94:689–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Azzi L, Cerati M, Lambardo M, Pellilli M, Croveri F, Maurino V, et al. Chronic ulcerative stomatitis: a comprehensive review and proposal for diagnostic criteria. Oral Dis. 2019;25(6):1465–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Preeti L, Magesh K, Rajkumar K, Karthik R. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. J Oral Maxillofac Pathol. 2011;15:252–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  89. Pongissawaranun W, Laohapand PP. Epidemiologic study on recurrent aphthous stomatitis in a Thai dental patient population. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1991;19:52–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Shashy RG, Ridley MB. Aphthous ulcers: a difficult clinical entity. Amer J Otolaryngol. 2000;21:389–93.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Wadhawan R, Sharma S, Solanki G, Vaishnav R. Alternative medicine for aphthous stomatitis: a review. Int J Adv Case Rep. 2014;1:5–10.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Munoz-Corcuera M, Esparza-Gomez G, Gonzalez-Moles MA, BasconesMartinez A. Oral ulcers: clinical aspects. A tool for dermatologists: Part I, Acute ulcers. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2009;34:289–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Tarakji B, Gazal G, Al-Maweri SA, Azzeghaiby SN, Alaizari N. Guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis for dental practitioners. J Int Oral Health. 2015;7:74–8.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  94. Swain N, Pathak J, Poonja LS, Penkar Y. Etiological factors of recurrent aphthous stomatitis: a common perplexity. J Contemp Dent. 2012;2:96–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Slebioda Z, Szponar E, Kowalska A. Etiopathogenesis of recurrent aphthous stomatitis and the role of immunologic aspects: literature review. Arch Immunol Нer Exp. 2014;62:205–15.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Scully C, Porter S. Oral mucosal disease: recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2008;46:198–206.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Jurge S, Kuffer R, Scully C, Porter SR. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Dis. 2006;12:1–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Ship JA, Chavez EM, Doerr PA, Henson BS, Sarmadi M. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Quintessence Int. 2001;31:95–112.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Edgar NR, Saleh D, Miller RA. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: a review. J Clin Aesth Dermatol. 2017;10:26–36.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Akintoye SO, Greenberg MS. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Dent Clin N Am. 2005;49:31–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Shastri A, Srivastava R. Etiopathogenesis, diagnosis and recent treatment modalities for recurrent aphthous stomatitis: a review. Int J Contemp Med Res. 2015;2:1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Scully C, Nur FL. Diagnosis and management of recurrent Aphthous stomatitis. Нe J Amer Dent Assoc. 2003;134:200–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  103. Arun Kumar M, Ananthakrishnan V, Goturu J. Etiology and pathophysiology of recurrent aphthous stomatitis: a review. Int J Cur Res Rev. 2014;6:16–22.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Ship JA. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: an update. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1996;81(2):141–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Natah SS, Konttinen YT, Enattah NS, Ashammakhi N, Sharkey KA, et al. Recurrent aphthous ulcers today: a review of the growing knowledge. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2004;33:221–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Rhee SH, Kim YB, Lee ES. Comparison of Behcet’s disease and recurrent aphthous ulcer according to characteristics of gastrointestinal symptoms. J Korean Med Sci. 2005;20:971–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  107. Aydemir S, Tekin NS, Aktunç E, Numanoglu G, Ustundag Y. Celiac disease in patients having recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Turk J Gastroenterol. 2004;15:192–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Rogers RS. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: clinical characteristics and associated systemic disorders. Semin Cut Med Surg. 1997;16:278–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Vivek V, Bindu JN. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: current concepts in diagnosis and management. J Ind Acad Oral Med Radiol. 2011;23:232–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Guallar IB, Soriano YJ, Lozano AC. Treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. A literature review. J Clin Exp Dent. 2014;6:168–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  111. Pramod GV. Management strategies for recurrent oral aphthous ulcers. J Dent. 2013;3:352–60.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Eisenberg E. Diagnosis and treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Oral Maxillofacial Surg Clin N Am. 2003;15:111–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  113. Casiglia JM. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: etiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Gen Dent. 2002;50:157–66.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Al-Namah ZM, Carson R, Нanoon IA. Dexamucobase: a novel treatment for oral aphthous ulceration. Quintessence Int. 2009;40:399–404.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Meng W, Dong Y, Liu J, Wang Z, Zhong X, et al. A clinical evaluation of amlexanox oral adhesive pellicles in the treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis and comparison with amlexanox oral tablets: a randomized, placebo controlled, blinded, multicenter clinical trial. Trials. 2009;10:30.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Aljbab AA, Almuhaiza M, Patil SR, Alanezi K. Management of recurrent aphthous ulcers: an update. Int J Dent Oral Health. 2015;2:1–4.

    Google Scholar 

  117. Piccione N. Use of chlorhexidine in the therapy of some stomatological diseases. Minerva Stomatol. 1979;28:209–14.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Graykowski EA, Kingman A. Double-blind trial of tetracycline in recurrent aphthous ulceration. J Oral Pathol. 1978;7:376–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Pimlott SJ, Walker DM. A controlled clinical trial of the efficacy of topically applied fluocinonide in the treatment of recurrent aphthous ulceration. Br Dent J. 1983;154:174–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Altenburg A, Zouboulis CC. Current concepts in the treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Skin Нerapy Lett. 2008;13:1–10.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Khandwala A, Van Inwegen RG, Alfano MC. 5% Amlexanox oral paste, a new treatment for recurrent minor aphthous stomatitis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1997;83:222–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Ricer RE. Sucralfate vs. placebo for the treatment of aphthous ulcers: a double-blinded prospective clinical trial. Fam Pract Res J. 1989;9:33–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Qnane PA, Graham GG, Ziegler JB. Pharmacology of Benzydamine. Inflammopharmacology. 1998;6:95–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  124. Nolan A, Baillie C, Badminton J, Rudralingham M, Seymour RA. The efficacy of topical hyaluronic acid in the management of recurrent aphthous ulceration. J Oral Pathol Med. 2006;35:461–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Scheinfeld N, Rosenberg JD, Weinberg JM. Levamisole in dermatology: a review. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2004;5:97–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Genvo MF, Faure M, Нivolet J. Treatment of aphthosis with thalidomide and with colchicine. Dermatologica. 1984;168:182–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Pizarro A, Navarro A, Fonseca E, Vidaurrazaga C, Herranz P. Treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis with pentoxifylline. Br J Dermatol. 1995;133:659–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Puri N, Gill JK, Kaur H, Kaur N, Kaur J. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis: Нerapeutic management from topicals to systemics. J Adv Med Dent Sc Res. 2015;3:165–70.

    Google Scholar 

  129. Bor NM, Karabiyikoglu A, Karabiyikoglu T. Treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis with systemic zinc sulphate. J Islam Acad Sci. 1990;3:343–7.

    Google Scholar 

  130. Cui RZ, Bruce AJ, Rogers RS. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Clin Dermatol. 2016;34:475–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Sarmadi M, Ship JA. Refractory major aphthous stomatitis managed with systemic immunosuppressants: a case report. Quintessence Int. 2004;35:39–48.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Kudur MH, Hulmani M. Rebamipide: a novel agent in the treatment of recurrent aphthous ulcer and Behcet’s syndrome. Indian J Dermatol. 2013;58:352–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  133. Nanke Y, Kamatani N, Okamoto T, Ogiuchi H, Kotake S. Irsogladine is eوٴective for recurrent oral ulcers in patients with Behçet’s disease: an open-label, single-Centre study. Drugs R D. 2008;9:455–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Vujevich J, Zirwas M. Treatment of severe, recalcitrant, major aphthous stomatitis with adalimumab. Cutis. 2005;76:129–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Pedersen A. Acyclovir in the prevention of severe aphthous ulcers. Arch Dermatol. 1992;128:119–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Femiano F, Buonaiuto C, Gombos F, Lanza A, Cirillo N. Pilot study on recurrent aphthous stomatitis (RAS): a randomized placebo-controlled trial for the comparative therapeutic effects of systemic prednisone and systemic montelukast in subjects unresponsive to topical therapy. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2010;109:402–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Robinson ND. Recalcitrant, recurrent aphthous stomatitis treated with etanercept. Arch Dermatol. 2003;139:1259–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. De Abreu MA, Hirata CH, Pimentel DR, Weckx LL. Treatment of recurrent aphthous stomatitis with clofazimine. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2009;108:714–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Zhou Y, Chen Q, Meng W, Jiang L, Wang Z, et al. Evaluation of penicillin G potassium troches in the treatment of minor recurrent aphthous ulceration in a chinese cohort: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo and no-treatment-controlled, multicenter clinical trial. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2010;109:561–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Sharma D, Garg R. Comprehensive review on aphthous stomatitis, its types, management and treatment available. J Dev Drugs. 2018;7(2):188–95.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Alberti PW. Panel discussion: the historical development of laryngectomy. II. The evolution of laryngology and laryngectomy in the mid-19th century. Laryngoscope. 1975;85(2):288–98.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Esser JF. Studies in plastic surgery of the face: i. use of skin from the neck to replace face defects. ii. Plastic operations about the mouth. iii. The epidermic inlay. Ann Surg. 1917;65(3):297–315.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  143. Sobin LH. TNM classification of malignant tumours. Chichester, West Sussex, UK, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  144. Bray F, Ren JS, Masuyer E, Ferlay J. Global estimates of cancer prevalence for 27 sites in the adult population in 2008. Int J Cancer. 2013;132(5):1133–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Siegel RL, Miller KD, Jemal A. Cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin. 2017;67(1):7–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Gatta G, Botta L, Sánchez MJ, Anderson LA, Pierannunzio D, Licitra L, et al. Prognoses and improvement for head and neck cancers diagnosed in Europe in early 2000s: the EUROCARE-5 population-based study. Eur J Cancer. 2015;51(15):2130–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Abbas NF, Labib El-Sharkawy S, Abbas EA, Abdel Monem El-Shaer M. Immunohistochemical study of p53 and angiogenesis in benign and preneoplastic oral lesions and oral squamous cell carcinoma. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;103(3):385–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Greer RO. Pathology of malignant and premalignant oral epithelial lesions. Otolaryngol Clin N Am. 2006;39(2):249–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  149. van der Waal I. Potentially malignant disorders of the oral and oropharyngeal mucosa; present concepts of management. Oral Oncol. 2010;46(6):423–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. van der Waal I. Potentially malignant disorders of the oral and oropharyngeal mucosa; terminology, classification and present concepts of management. Oral Oncol. 2009;45(4–5):317–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Gorsky M, Epstein JB. The effect of retinoids on premalignant oral lesions: focus on topical therapy. Cancer. 2002;95(6):1258–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Reichart PA, Philipsen HP. Oral erythroplakia--a review. Oral Oncol. 2005;41(6):551–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Hashibe M, Mathew B, Kuruvilla B, Thomas G, Sankaranarayanan R, Parkin DM, et al. Chewing tobacco, alcohol, and the risk of erythroplakia. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2000;9(7):639–45.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. van der Waal I, Schepman KP, van der Meij EH, Smeele LE. Oral leukoplakia: a clinicopathological review. Oral Oncol. 1997;33(5):291–301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Napier SS, Speight PM. Natural history of potentially malignant oral lesions and conditions: an overview of the literature. J Oral Pathol Med. 2008;37(1):1–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Lee J-J, Hung H-C, Cheng S-J, Chen Y-J, Chiang C-P, Liu B-Y, et al. Carcinoma and dysplasia in oral leukoplakias in Taiwan: prevalence and risk factors. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2006;101(4):472–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Parashar P. Oral lichen planus. Otolaryngol Clin N Am. 2011;44(1):89–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  158. Patrick G. Sataloff’s comprehensive textbook of otolaryngology: head and neck surgery: head and neck surgery, vol. 5. New Delhi: The Health Sciences Publisher; 2016. p. 600.

    Google Scholar 

  159. Doherty G. Current diagnosis and treatment: surgery. New York, NY: Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  160. Som P. Head and neck imaging. St. Louis, Missori, MO: Mosby; 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  161. Harrison L. Head and neck cancer: a multidisciplinary approach. Philadelphia, PA: Lipppincott Williams & Wilkins; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  162. Martín-Hernán F, Sánchez-Hernández JG, Cano J, Campo J, del Romero J. Oral cancer, HPV infection and evidence of sexual transmission. Medicina Oral, Patologia Oral y Cirugia Bucal. 2013;18(3):e439–44.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  163. Elad S, Zadik Y, Zeevi I, Miyazaki A, de Figueiredo MA, Or R. Oral cancer in patients after hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation: long-term follow-up suggests an increased risk for recurrence. Transplantation. 2010;90(11):1243–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Mashberg A, Barsa P, Grossman ML. A study of the relationship between mouthwash use and oral and pharyngeal cancer. JADA. 1985;110(5):731–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Lee CC, Ho HC, Su YC, Yu CH, Yang CC. Modified tumor classification with inclusion of tumor characteristics improves discrimination and prediction accuracy in oral and hypopharyngeal cancer patients who underwent surgery. Medicine (Baltimore). 2015;94(27):e1114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  166. Abbey LM. Precancerous lesions of the mouth. Curr Opin Dent. 1991;1(6):773–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Stelow EB, Jo VY, Stoler MH, Mills SE. Human papillomavirus-associated squamous cell carcinoma of the upper aerodigestive tract. Am J Surg Pathol. 2010;34(7):e15–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Schlecht NF, Brandwein-Gensler M, Nuovo GJ, Li M, Dunne A, Kawachi N, et al. A comparison of clinically utilized human papillomavirus detection methods in head and neck cancer. Mod Pathol. 2011;24(10):1295–305.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  169. Peterson BR, Nelson BL. Nonkeratinizing undifferentiated nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Head Neck Pathol. 2013;7(1):73–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Pathmanathan R, Prasad U, Chandrika G, Sadler R, Flynn K, Raab-Traub N. Undifferentiated, nonkeratinizing, and squamous cell carcinoma of the nasopharynx. Variants of Epstein-Barr virus-infected neoplasia. Am J Pathol. 1995;146(6):1355–67.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  171. Marasescu F, Marasescu P-C, Matei M, Florescu AM, Margaritescu C, Peterscu S-M-S, Dumiterscu C. Epidemiological and histopathological aspects of tongue squamous cell carcinomas-retrospective study. Curr Health Sci J. 2018;44(3):211–24.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  172. Stambuk HE, Karimi S, Lee N, Patel SG. Oral cavity and oropharynx tumors. Radiol Clin N Am. 2007;45(1):1–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Edward H. Perez and Brady’s principles and practice of radiation oncology. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  174. Pauloski BR, Rademaker AW, Logemann JA, Colangelo LA. Speech and swallowing in irradiated and nonirradiated postsurgical oral cancer patients. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1998;118(5):616–24.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Gomez DR, Zhung JE, Gomez J, Chan K, Wu AJ, Wolden SL, et al. Intensity-modulated radiotherapy in postoperative treatment of oral cavity cancers. Int JRadiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009;73(4):1096–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  176. Oh HK, Chambers MS, Martin JW, Lim HJ, Park HJ. Osteoradionecrosis of the mandible: treatment outcomes and factors influencing the progress of osteoradionecrosis. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009;677:1378–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  177. Chip developed to diagnose oral cancer in ten minutes. Br Dent J. 2010;209(4):155.

    Google Scholar 

  178. Shaha A. Preoperative evaluation of the mandible in patients with carcinoma of the floor of mouth. Head Neck. 1991;13(5):398–402.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Hayashi T, Tanaka R, Taira S, Koyama J, Katsura K, Kobayashi F. Non-contrast-enhanced CT findings of high attenuation within metastatic cervical lymph nodes in patients with stage I or II tongue carcinoma during a follow-up period. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2003;24(7):1330–3.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  180. Kuno H, Onaya H, Iwata R, Kobayashi T, Fujii S, Hayashi R, et al. Evaluation of cartilage invasion by laryngeal and hypopharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma with dual-energy CT. Radiology. 2012;265(2):488–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. van den Brekel MW, Stel HV, Castelijns JA, Nauta JJ, van der Waal I, Valk J, et al. Cervical lymph node metastasis: assessment of radiologic criteria. Radiology. 1990;177(2):379–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Curtin HD, Ishwaran H, Mancuso AA, Dalley RW, Caudry DJ, McNeil BJ. Comparison of CT and MR imaging in staging of neck metastases. Radiology. 1998;207(1):123–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Merritt RM, Williams MF, James TH, Porubsky ES. Detection of cervical metastasis. A meta-analysis comparing computed tomography with physical examination. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1997;123(2):149–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Rudmik L, Lau HY, Matthews TW, Bosch JD, Kloiber R, Molnar CP, et al. Clinical utility of PET/CT in the evaluation of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma with an unknown primary: a prospective clinical trial. Head Neck. 2011;33(7):935–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Escott EJ. Role of positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) in head and neck cancer. Radiol Clin N Am. 2013;51(5):881–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Sakata K, Hareyama M, Tamakawa M, Oouchi A, Sido M, Nagakura H, et al. Prognostic factors of nasopharynx tumors investigated by MR imaging and the value of MR imaging in the newly published TNM staging. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1999;43(2):273–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Rasch C, Keus R, Pameijer FA, Koops W, de Ru V, Muller S, et al. The potential impact of CT-MRI matching on tumor volume delineation in advanced head and neck cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1997;39(4):841–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue. Radiopedia. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/squamous-cell-carcinoma-of-the-tongue. Accessed on 17 Nov 2015.

  189. Kuno H, Onaya H, Fujii S, Ojiri H, Otani K, Satake M. Primary staging of laryngeal and hypopharyngeal cancer: CT, MR imaging and dual-energy CT. Eur J Radiol. 2014;83(1):e23–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Lodder WL, Teertstra HJ, Tan IB, Pameijer FA, Smeele LE, van Velthuysen ML, et al. Tumour thickness in oral cancer using an intra-oral ultrasound probe. Eur Radiol. 2011;2(1):98–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  191. Liu J, Wang XL, Liu L, Xue LY, Liu K, Huang H, et al. Application value of sentinel node biopsy in early stage oral tongue cancer with clinically negative neck. Zhonghua Zhong Liu Za Zhi. 2013;35(6):459–62.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Kim SY, Roh JL, Yeo NK, Kim JS, Lee JH, Choi SH, et al. Combined 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography and computed tomography as a primary screening method for detecting second primary cancers and distant metastases in patients with head and neck cancer. Ann Oncol. 2007;18(10):1698–703.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Anil A. Imaging in head and neck cancer: a practical approach. London San Francisco: Greenwich Medical Media; 2003. ISBN 1841100900

    Google Scholar 

  194. Stephen E. AJCC cancer staging manual. New York, NY: Springer; 2010. ISBN 0387884408

    Google Scholar 

  195. Sigal R, Zagdanski AM, Schwaab G, Bosq J, Auperin A, Laplanche A, et al. CT and MR imaging of squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue and floor of the mouth. Radiographics. 1996;16(4):787–810.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Anbarasi K, Sathasivasubramanian S, Kuruvilla S. Susruthan. Alveolar soft-part sarcoma of tongue. Indian J Pathol Microbiol. 2011;54(3):581–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Agarwal R, Kumar V, Kaushal A, Singh RK. Intraoral lipoma: a rare clinical entity. BMJ Case Rep. 2013;2013:bcr2012007889.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  198. Baden E, Doyle JL, Lederman DA. Leiomyoma of the oral cavity: a light microscopic and immunohistochemical study with review of the literature from 1884 to 1992. Eur J Cancer B Oral Oncol. 1994;30B(1):1–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. Abreu I, Roriz D, Rodrigues P, Moreira Â, Marques C, Alves FC. Schwannoma of the tongue-a common tumour in a rare location: a case report. Eur J Radiol Open. 2017;4:1–3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  200. Acampa O, Frojo M, Palomba F, Rullo R. A case of solitary neurofibroma of the tongue. Arch Stomatol (Napoli). 1990;31(4):821–5.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Ajay GN, Laxmikanth C, Prashanth SK. Tuberculous ulcer of tongue with oral complications of oral antituberculosis therapy. Indian J Dent Res. 2006;17(2):87–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Kutsuna S, Hayakawa K, Ohmagari N. Scarlet fever in an adult. Intern Med. 2014;53(2):167–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. Abdullaev AK. Characteristics of the clinical picture of syphilis in recent years. Vestn Dermatol Venerol. 1972;46(2):61–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Anoun N, El Ouahabi H. Acromegaly features in the aging population. Pan Afr Med J. 2017;27:169.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  205. Spatz R, Thimm R, Heinze HG, Ross A, König M. Changes in the clinical picture of vitamin B-12 deficiency diseases. Nervenarzt. 1976;47(3):169–72.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Akin RK, Baron K, Walters PJ. Amyloidosis, macroglossia, and carpal tunnel syndrome associated with myeloma. J Oral Surg. 1975;33(9):690–2.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Chan LS, Ahmed AR, Anhalt GJ, Bernauer W, Cooper KD, Elder MJ, et al. Diagnosis and therapy of mucous membrane pemphigoid. Results of the 1st international consensus conference. Hautarzt. 2002;53(5):371–2.

    Google Scholar 

  208. Farthing PM, Maragou P, Coates M, Tatnall F, Leigh IM, Williams DM. Characteristics of the oral lesions in patients with cutaneous recurrent erythema multiforme. J Oral Pathol Med. 1995;24(1):9–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. Apalla Z, Sotiriou E, Lazaridou E, Manousari A, Trigoni A, Papagarifallou I, et al. Pemphigus vegetans of the tongue: a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. Int J Dermatol. 2013;52(3):350–1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. Abensour M, Grosshans E. Geographic tongue or benign migratory glossitis. Ann Dermatol Venereol. 1999;126(11):849–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  211. Gurvits GE, Tan A. Black hairy tongue syndrome. World J Gastroenterol. 2014;20(31):10845–50.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  212. Sankaranarayanan R, Ramadas K, Thomas G, Muwonge R, Thara S, Mathew B, et al. Effect of screening on oral cancer mortality in Kerala, India: a cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2005;365(9475):1927–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  213. Santana JC, Delgado L, Miranda J, Sánchez M. Oral cancer case finding program (OCCFP). Oral Oncol. 1997;33(1):10–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. Sankaranarayanan R. Health care auxiliaries in the detection and prevention of oral cancer. Oral Oncol. 1997;33(3):149–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  215. Shin DM, Zhang H, Saba NF, Chen AY, Nannapaneni S, Amin AR, et al. Chemoprevention of head and neck cancer by simultaneous blocking of epidermal growth factor receptor and cyclooxygenase-2 signaling pathways: preclinical and clinical studies. Clin Cancer Res. 2013;19(5):1244–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  216. Kreimer AR, Chaturvedi AK. HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancers--are they preventable? Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2011;4(9):1346–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  217. Stich HF, Hornby AP, Mathew B, Sankaranarayanan R, Nair MK. Response of oral leukoplakias to the administration of vitamin a. Cancer Lett. 1988;40(1):93–101.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  218. Wirth LJ, Haddad RI, Lindeman NI, Zhao X, Lee JC, Joshi VA, et al. Phase I study of gefitinib plus celecoxib in recurrent or metastatic squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(28):6976–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. Bairati I, Meyer F, Gélinas M, Fortin A, Nabid A, Brochet F, et al. A randomized trial of antioxidant vitamins to prevent second primary cancers in head and neck cancer patients. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005;97(7):481–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  220. Soriano AF, Helfrich B, Chan DC, Heasley LE, Bunn PA, Chou TC. Synergistic effects of new chemopreventive agents and conventional cytotoxic agents against human lung cancer cell lines. Cancer Res. 1999;59(24):6178–84.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  221. Lingen MW, Polverini PJ, Bouck NP. Retinoic acid and interferon alpha act synergistically as antiangiogenic and antitumor agents against human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Res. 1998;58(23):5551–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  222. Klijn JG, Berns PM, Schmitz PI, Foekens JA. The clinical significance of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGF-R) in human breast cancer: a review on 5232 patients. Endocr Rev. 1992;13(1):3–17.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  223. Rampias T, Sasaki C, Psyrri A. Molecular mechanisms of HPV induced carcinogenesis in head and neck. Oral Oncol. 2014;50(5):356–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. Bourgier C, Coche-Déquéant B, Fournier C, Castelain B, Prévost B, Lefebvre JL, et al. Exclusive low-dose-rate brachytherapy in 279 patients with T2N0 mobile tongue carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2005;63(2):434–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  225. Ganly I, Goldstein D, Carlson DL, Patel SG, O’Sullivan B, Lee N, et al. Long-term regional control and survival in patients with “low-risk,” early stage oral tongue cancer managed by partial glossectomy and neck dissection without postoperative radiation: the importance of tumor thickness. Cancer. 2013;119(6):1168–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  226. McGregor AD, MacDonald DG. Patterns of spread of squamous cell carcinoma within the mandible. Head Neck. 1989;11(5):457–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  227. McGregor AD, MacDonald DG. Routes of entry of squamous cell carcinoma to the mandible. Head Neck Surg. 1988;10(5):294–301.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  228. Wendt CD, Peters LJ, Delclos L, Ang KK, Morrison WH, Maor MH, et al. Primary radiotherapy in the treatment of stage I and II oral tongue cancers: importance of the proportion of therapy delivered with interstitial therapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1990;18(6):1287–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  229. Licitra L, Grandi C, Guzzo M, Mariani L, Lo Vullo S, Valvo F, et al. Primary chemotherapy in resectable oral cavity squamous cell cancer: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Oncol. 2003;21(2):327–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  230. Stenson KM, Kunnavakkam R, Cohen EE, Portugal LD, Blair E, Haraf DJ, et al. Chemoradiation for patients with advanced oral cavity cancer. Laryngoscope. 2010;120(1):93–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  231. Gomez DR, Zhung JE, Gomez J, Chan K, Wu AJ, Wolden SL, et al. Intensity-modulated radiotherapy in postoperative treatment of oral cavity cancers. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009;73(4):1096–103.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  232. Fujita M, Hirokawa Y, Kashiwado K, Akagi Y, Kashimoto K, Kiriu H, et al. An analysis of mandibular bone complications in radiotherapy for T1 and T2 carcinoma of the oral tongue. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1996;342:333–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  233. Fein DA, Mendenhall WM, Parsons JT, McCarty PJ, Stringer SP, Million RR, et al. Carcinoma of the oral tongue: a comparison of results and complications of treatment with radiotherapy and/or surgery. Head Neck. 1994;16(4):358–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  234. Matsuura K, Hirokawa Y, Fujita M, Akagi Y, Ito K. Treatment results of stage I and II oral tongue cancer with interstitial brachytherapy: maximum tumor thickness is prognostic of nodal metastasis. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1998;40(3):535–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  235. Bessell A, Glenny AM, Furness S, Clarkson JE, Oliver R, Conway DI, et al. Interventions for the treatment of oral and oropharyngeal cancers: surgical treatment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;9:CD006205.

    Google Scholar 

  236. Huang SH, Hwang D, Lockwood G, Goldstein DP, O’Sullivan B. Predictive value of tumor thickness for cervical lymph-node involvement in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity: a meta-analysis of reported studies. Cancer. 2009;115(7):1489–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  237. D’Cruz AK, Vaish R, Kapre N, Dandekar M, Gupta S, Hawaldar R, et al. Elective versus therapeutic neck dissection in node-negative oral cancer. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(6):521–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  238. Schilling C, Stoeckli SJ, Haerle SK, Broglie MA, Huber GF, Sorensen JA, et al. Sentinel European Node Trial (SENT): 3-year results of sentinel node biopsy in oral cancer. Eur J Cancer. 2015;51(18):2777–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  239. Pedersen NJ, Jensen DH, Hedbäck N, Frendø M, Kiss K, Lelkaitis G, et al. Staging of early lymph node metastases with the sentinel lymph node technique and predictive factors in T1/T2 oral cavity cancer: a retrospective single-center study. Head Neck. 2016;38(Suppl 1):E1033–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  240. Abdul-Razak M, Chung H, Wong E, Palme C, Veness M, Farlow D, et al. Sentinel lymph node biopsy for early oral cancers: Westmead Hospital experience. ANZ J Surg. 2017;87(1–2):65–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  241. Luryi AL, Chen MM, Mehra S, Roman SA, Sosa JA, Judson BL. Treatment factors associated with survival in early-stage oral cavity cancer: analysis of 6830 cases from the national cancer data base. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2015;141(7):593–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  242. Liao CT, Chang JT, Wang HM, Ng SH, Hsueh C, Lee LY, et al. Survival in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity: differences between pT4 N0 and other stage IVA categories. Cancer. 2007;110(3):564–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  243. Ichimiya Y, Fuwa N, Kamata M, Kodaira T, Furutani K, Tachibana H. Treatment results of stage I oral tongue cancer with definitive radiotherapy. Oral Oncol. 2005;41(5):520–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  244. Jing J, Li L, He W, Sun G. Prognostic predictors of squamous cell carcinoma of the buccal mucosa with negative surgical margins. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2006;64(6):896–901.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  245. Mücke T, Kanatas A, Ritschl LM, Koerdt S, Tannapfel A, Wolff KD, et al. Tumor thickness and risk of lymph node metastasis in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue. Oral Oncol. 2016;53:80–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  246. Lam P, Au-Yeung KM, Cheng PW, Wei WI, Yuen AP, Trendell-Smith N. Correlating MRI and histologic tumor thickness in the assessment of oral tongue cancer. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2004;182(3):803–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  247. Preda L, Chiesa F, Calabrese L, Latronico A, Bruschini R, Leon ME. Relationship between histologic thickness of tongue carcinoma and thickness estimated from preoperative MRI. Eur Radiol. 2006;16(10):2242–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  248. Kwon M, Moon H, Nam SY, Lee JH, Kim JW, Lee YS, et al. Clinical significance of three-dimensional measurement of tumour thickness on magnetic resonance imaging in patients with oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma. Eur Radiol. 2016;26(3):858–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  249. Alsaffar HA, Goldstein DP, King EV, de Almeida JR, Brown DH, Gilbert RW, et al. Correlation between clinical and MRI assessment of depth of invasion in oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma. J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2016;45(1):61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  250. Pentenero M, Gandolfo S, Carrozzo M. Importance of tumor thickness and depth of invasion in nodal involvement and prognosis of oral squamous cell carcinoma: a review of the literature. Head Neck. 2005;27(12):1080–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  251. Kurtz KA, Hoffman HT, Zimmerman MB, Robinson RA. Perineural and vascular invasion in oral cavity squamous carcinoma: increased incidence on re-review of slides and by using immunohistochemical enhancement. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2005;129(3):354–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  252. Sparano A, Weinstein G, Chalian A, Yodul M, Weber R. Multivariate predictors of occult neck metastasis in early oral tongue cancer. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2004;131(4):472–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  253. Garzino-Demo P, Dell’Acqua A, Dalmasso P, Fasolis M, La Terra Maggiore GM, Ramieri G. Clinicopathological parameters and outcome of 245 patients operated for oral squamous cell carcinoma. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2006;34(6):344–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  254. Rahima B, Shingaki S, Nagata M, Saito C. Prognostic significance of perineural invasion in oral and oropharyngeal carcinoma. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2004;97(4):423–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  255. McMahon J, O’Brien CJ, Pathak I, Hamill R, McNeil E, Hammersley N. Influence of condition of surgical margins on local recurrence and disease-specific survival in oral and oropharyngeal cancer. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2003;41(4):224–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  256. Smeele LE, Leemans CR, Langendijk JA, Tiwari R, Slotman BJ, van Der Waal I. Positive surgical margins in neck dissection specimens in patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma and the effect of radiotherapy. Head Neck. 2000;22(6):559–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  257. Carvalho AL, Singh B, Spiro RH, Kowalski LP, Shah JP. Cancer of the oral cavity: a comparison between institutions in a developing and a developed nation. Head Neck. 2004;26(1):31–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  258. Sheahan P, O’Keane C, Sheahan JN, O’Dwyer TP. Predictors of survival in early oral cancer. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2003;129(5):571–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  259. Tankere F, Camproux A, Barry B, Guedon C, Depondt J, Gehanno P. Prognostic value of lymph node involvement in oral cancers: a study of 137 cases. Laryngoscope. 2000;110(12):2061–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  260. Duvvuri U, Simental AA Jr, D’Angelo G, Johnson JT, Ferris RL, Gooding W. Elective neck dissection and survival in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity and oropharynx. Laryngoscope. 2004;114(12):2228–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  261. Zbaren P, Nuyens M, Caversaccio M, Stauffer E. Elective neck dissection for carcinomas of the oral cavity: occult metastases, neck recurrences, and adjuvant treatment of pathologically positive necks. Am J Surg. 2006;191(6):756–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  262. De Vicente JC, Recio OR, Pendas SL, Lopez-Arranz JS. Oral squamous cell carcinoma of the mandibular region: a survival study. Head Neck. 2001;23(7):536–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  263. Carvalho AL, Ikeda MK, Magrin J, Kowalski LP. Trends of 37.oral and oropharyngeal cancer survival over five decades in 3267 patients treated in a single institution. Oral Oncol. 2004;40(1):71–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  264. Gross ND, Patel SG, Carvalho AL, Chu PY, Kowalski LP, Boyle JO, et al. Nomogram for deciding adjuvant treatment after surgery for oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma. Head Neck. 2008;30(10):1352–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  265. Fagan JJ, Collins B, Barnes L, D’Amico F, Myers EN, Johnson JT. Perineural invasion in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1998;124(6):637–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  266. Diaz EM Jr, Holsinger FC, Zuniga ER, Roberts DB, Sorensen DM. Squamous cell carcinoma of the buccal mucosa: one institution’s experience with 119 previously untreated patients. Head Neck. 2003;25(4):267–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  267. Truitt TO, Gleich LL, Huntress GP, Gluckman JL. Surgical management of hard palate malignancies. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1999;121(5):548–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Sakr, M.F. (2022). Ulcers of the Tongue. In: Tongue Lesions. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08198-9_14

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08198-9_14

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-031-08197-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-031-08198-9

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics